The Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989
hazardous waste management rules pdf
hazardous waste management rules pdf - win
The Busy Bee Chemical Safety Plan
Preface forTheeHiveBees: I promised this safety plan quite some time ago. It has turned into quite the arduous, yet rewarding and insightful, task. The following document is best suited for BabyBees, and I will post it there as soon as possible after posting here; however, I hope that it will contain valuable information for most, if not all, bees. I, myself, am by no means an expert bee (although I possess a good deal of chemical knowledge in the ordinary sense, especially in regard to safety, at this point, and have a lot of experience in professional labs, mostly quantitative). As a result, I would like this to be a working document, and as such, I will consider any and all edits that other bees recommend. Please comment or DM any input or questions you may have. I am greatly indebted to all of you who have all ready provided assistance, and apologize if I missed any of your previous recommendations. *I especially need some assistance with waste disposal (last section) information. I only know about professional waste disposal, which we obviously want to avoid when possible. Table of Contents: I. Introduction II. Basic Laboratory Safety Rules III. Dress, Preparation, and PPE for Lab Work A. Basic Considerations B. PPE C. Lab Setup D. Behavior and Technique IV. Chemical Safety A. SDS B. Chemical Labeling C. Chemical Storage D. Bonding and Grounding E. Peroxide Forming Molecules and Shelf Lives V. Labware Safety A. Glassware B. Support C. Tubing D. Heat E. Electricity VI. Reaction Safety A. Fume Hoods B. Additional Tips VII. Emergency Procedures A. Emergency Shower and Eyewash Stations B. Fire Extinguishers C. Fire Blankets D. Spills E. First Aid VIII. Post-Procedure Protocols A. Personal Hygiene B. Facility Hygiene C. Waste Disposal ____________________________________________________________________________ II. Basic Laboratory Safety Rules:
Never work alone, and alert others on the premises that you are about to conduct lab work. If you are blinded, set on fire, burnt, frightened, accidentally intoxicated, experience a health emergency, or are otherwise put in danger, you may be unable to remedy the situation alone, which could lead to death, permanent blindness, disfigurement, etc. Be sure that you and/or another has the ability to call 911.
Wear proper PPE at all times and avoid other hazardous dress (see the section on PPE below).
Always prepare for the worst!! Wear the PPE and take the precautions that will protect against the worst case scenario given the chemicals and processes you work with.
Never eat, drink, chew gum, or have any unnecessary items in the lab in case of contamination (of the items, self, or the experiment).
Keep the lab clean, sanitary, and organized.
Never allow walkways or exits to become obstructed.
Thoroughly study the SDS for each chemical you work with.
Have emergency procedures in place, including fire extinguishers, fire blankets, first aid, spill kits, emergency showers, and eyewash station.
Understand peroxide-forming chemicals, and evaluate shelf-lives of materials.
Bond and ground flammable and combustible fluids.
Use a fume hood.
Store and handle reagents properly.
Add acids and bases to water, never vice-versa.
Never look into the end of any glassware wherein a reaction is taking place.
III. Dress, Preparation, and PPE for Lab Work A. Basic Considerations: Before we apply PPE, there are some basic precautions that must be taken in terms of dress and personal hygiene. Do NOT:
Wear loose fitting clothing that may knock things over, catch fire, or soak up chemicals.
Wear jewelry for the above reasons. Metals in jewelry may also react with certain chemicals.
Unnecessarily expose any skin.
Wear contact lenses, unless full, non-ventilated goggles are also worn.
Do:
Maintain personal hygiene to avoid contamination.
Wear all proper PPE, especially gloves and goggles at all times.
Wash hands and change gloves as frequently as possible.
Wear closed-toe, thick, shoes.
Wear tight-fitting clothing that covers as much skin as possible- long sleeves, long pants, closed shirt, and lab coat.
B. PPE (Personal Protective Equipment): The most obvious safety practice is the use of personal protective equipment. However, PPE is the last system of defense against chemical hazards. Practitioners should focus their efforts on the maintenance of a safe work environment, proper training, and the replacement of more with less dangerous chemicals where possible. We will classify PPE into three sections- eye, body, and respiratory protection. (note: larger labs and some rare reactions may also require hearing protection, light-restrictive eye protection, hard hats, and other forms of protection as necessary). Eye Protection: Chemical splash goggles Eye protection is not just to prevent impact, which is all that general safety goggles, with or without side shields, do. General safety goggles and eyeglasses offer limited protection against sprays, and do NOT prevent splash hazards, which may come from any angle or drip down one’s face into the eyes. Additionally, some chemical fumes are eye irritants. Bees should wear chemical splash goggles labeled with the code Z87.1, which denotes compliance with safety standards. The goggles must fit snugly against the face and remain on at all times. Suggestion: Chemical Splash/Impact Goggle.
Do not touch your eyes while in a lab.
Never wear contact lenses in a lab- some chemicals may react with them, and liquids may get trapped under them, exacerbating eye damage and reducing effectiveness of emergency eye washes.
Face shields that cover the entire face may be necessary for chemicals that are particularly corrosive, flammable, or explosive.
Body Protection: Long clothes that cover as much skin as possible is a must. This means closed shoes or boots, pants, long sleeves, a lab coat, and gloves. Tie back long hair. Change gloves and wash hands as often as possible, especially before leaving the lab. Recognize that touching things such as your phone with your gloves on may spread toxic chemicals.
Gloves: Keep a large amount of gloves on hand. This includes boxes of traditional nitrile/latex gloves, and at least one pair each of heat/cold resistant and thick-rubber, arm-length, corrosive-resistant gloves.
All gloves are permeable- even the proper glove will only protect for a period of time. Many chemicals will eventually work their way through them. It is imperative that gloves are changed and hands washed as often as possible.
If more than one type of hand protection is necessary, multi-hazard protective gloves are available; otherwise, gloves may be layered.
All used gloves should be considered hazardous. Throw them away in a safe place, and do not wear or carry them outside of the lab area.
2. Lab Coats: Multi-hazard protection lab coats are best, and should be both fire (FR) and chemical splash (CP) resistant. Most basic lab coats found online or in stores are not FCP. Proper coats are more expensive, but are absolutely worthwhile as they may prevent fire, chemical burns, and even death (research the UCLA tert-butyllithium incident). Here is an example of a proper lab coat: Lab Coat.
If you work with corrosive chemicals, a chemical splash apron, arm-length rubber gloves, and face shields may be necessary.
Keep lab coats in the lab area unless they are washed. They should be assumed to contain hazardous chemicals.
3. Respiratory Protection: Never smell chemicals or inhale their fumes. Use a fume hood when necessary and keep containers closed tightly. In case of a large chemical spill, evacuate immediately. Use a fume hood with any organic solvent, concentrated acids, and concentrated ammonia. Use respirators when working with fine powders or toxic fumes. C. Lab setup: Develop a thorough floor plan before equipping your lab. Priorities:
Ventilation- Air must flow from other areas of the facility or home to the lab area, and subsequently out of the building. Fume hoods must immediately direct airflow out of building.
Maximize open work space and visibility, and minimize obstruction throughout the work area.
Allow ample space between and within workstations.
Include ample lighting.
Include ample (excess) storage space that is separate from lab spaces where reactions take place.
Use OSHA approved acid, corrosive, and flammable storage cabinets.
Strategically place first aid, wash stations, spill control kits, fire extinguishers and blankets such that all are easily accessible in case of emergency, and such that an emergency itself (e.g. fire) will not obstruct access.
Doors should, preferably, hinge outward to promote prompt evacuation.
All wash stations must have a proper drain.
Large sinks are best, and there should be one per workstation.
All electrical and gas lines must be easily severable or closable.
Black epoxy resin surfaces are preferred.
Install and routinely check smoke detectors.
D. Behavior and Technique:
Keep a proper lab notebook that records all procedures.
Gather all needed glassware, labware, and chemicals before beginning an experiment.
Keep all equipment clean and dry when not in use.
Never add solvent to acids, bases, etc!! This could result in a violent reaction. All ways prepare the solvent first, and slowly add the acid or base to it.
Eliminate distractions.
Stay organized and keep the lab uncluttered.
Bond and ground when pouring flammable or combustible liquids.
Use the right tool for the job. Do not skimp or substitute glassware.
IV. Chemical Safety A. SDS: The first and most vital step to understand how to safely handle chemicals is thorough, proper, and regular review of Safety Data Sheets. It is recommended that physical copies of SDSs be kept for all chemicals in the laboratory. Safety Data Sheets can be found online as well, and should be reviewed each time a chemical is used, at least until one has extensive experience with that chemical. Safety and storage information should also be reviewed for any compounds synthesized, as well as any side products or impurities. The format of an SDS is an update to the traditional MSDS, and follows the guidelines prescribed by the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals (GHS) established in March 2012. A traditional MSDS is likely to contain all or most of the necessary information; however, SDS has the benefit of a strict and easy to follow format that includes the following 16 sections: Section 1—Identification: Chemical/product name, name and contact information of producer. Section 2—Hazard(s) Identification: All known hazards of the chemical and required label elements. The GHS identifies three hazard classes: health (toxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, etc.), physical (corrosive, flammable, combustible, etc.), and environmental hazards. There are 16 types of physical hazards and 10 types of health hazards. Next to each listed hazard is a rank/category from 1-4, with 1 being the most severe level of hazard. Next are hazard pictograms, a signal word, and hazard (H) statements and precautionary (P) statements. Pictograms allow chemists to quickly understand the basic hazards of a chemical, and must be on the chemical label. What pictograms a chemical requires is quantitatively determined, and users should become familiar with them. 📷 There are two signal words- Danger!, and Warning!, the former being more serious than the latter. P and H statements list specifically hazardous situations and precautions that must be taken when handling the chemical. Section 3—Composition/Information on Ingredients Section 4—First-Aid Measures Section 5—Fire-Fighting Measures Section 6—Accidental Release Measures: What to do in case of accidental spill or release of chemicals, proper containment, and cleanup. Section 7—Handling and Storage Section 8—Exposure Controls/Personal Protection: Includes exposure limits. Section 9—Physical and Chemical Properties: appearance, odor, flashpoint, solubility, pH, evaporation rates, etc. Section 10—Stability and Reactivity: Chemical stability and possible hazardous reactions. Section 11—Toxicological Information: Routes of exposure (inhalation, ingestion, or absorption contact), symptoms, acute and chronic effects, and numerical measures of toxicity. Sections 12-15 are optional, but include ecological information, disposal considerations, transportation information, and regulatory information. Section 16-- includes any additional information the producer may want to portray. B. Chemical Labeling: All chemicals should be labeled at all times to avoid hazard, confusion, and waste.
Containers that are being used in a procedure (beakers, flasks, wash bottles, etc.) may simply be labeled with a piece of scotch tape and a permanent marker.
Vessels that will be heated can be labeled with a heat-resistant paint marker.
Chemicals that will be stored (whether produced or purchased) should be labeled with at minimum the chemical name, date of production/purchase/opening, and safety concerns. Simple labels may be used for containers that are not in the manufacturer’s packaging.
C. Chemical Storage: General Reagents:
Keep storage spaces organized, clean, and uncluttered.
All chemicals should be stored properly whenever not in use.
Store bottles away from shelf edges, and/or have lipped shelves to prevent falls from, and contain spills on, shelves.
Keep seals tight.
Keep an inventory.
Always label chemicals properly, including the dates received and opened.
Bees may opt to cover glass containers in clear packing tape to reduce mess if a bottle is broken.
Store flammable and combustible liquids in a flammable cabinet. An old fridge is a good method of storage for bees. Never store food or drink in the same refrigerator.
Do not store liquids above solids.
Always store corrosive chemicals on spill trays.
Store odoriferous and toxic chemicals in ventilated cabinets.
Keep heavy containers on bottom shelves, and don’t store in high places or on the floor unless properly protected.
Acetone with- bromine, chlorine, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, or hydrogen peroxide (do not use acetone to clean receptacles that have had these chemicals in them!).
Iodine with- acetylene, ammonia, or hydrogen.
Water- keep all other chemicals away from water unless in solution. Especially avoid hydration of acetyl chloride, alkaline and alkaline earth metals, barium peroxide, carbides, chromic acid, phosphorus oxychloride, phosphorus pentachloride, phosphorous pentoxide, sulfuric acid, or sulfur trioxide.
Nitric Acid with- acetone, acetic acid, alcohol, chromic acid, aniline, hydrocyanic acid, hydrogen sulfide, or any flammable substances (keep this in mind when cleaning with nitric acid).
Hydrogen Peroxide with- copper, chromium, iron, most metals or salts of metals, alcohols, acetone, organic materials, aniline, nitromethane, flammable liquids, ammonia, or oxidizing agents.
Zinc and sulfur.
Mercury with- acetylene, fulminic acid, or ammonia.
Compressed Gasses:
Keep cylinders of compressed gasses secured
Keep appropriate breathing apparati in the vicinity, but not immediately near the compressed gases in case of emergency.
Keep the valve cap secured unless in use or connected to a line.
Do not store flammable gases near oxidizers or combustible materials.
Do not allow a cylinder to empty completely.
Dispose of cylinders after ten years, or three in the case of corrosive and toxic chemicals.
Note: avoid working with gases when possible. Gas chemistry has many complications, is often unsafe, and produces poor yields and poor quality products. Bulk Storage Containers:
Carboys: These are great for general purpose, and storage of chemicals no longer in their original container. However, they are not ideal for transport or use with acids, caustics, flammable liquids, or corrosive substances.
Safety Cans: have spring loaded lids and flame arresters. They are good for fluids in volumes less than five gallons, are safe for transporting most chemicals, and can be had for around $80. Recommended Safety Can.
Drums: for bulk chemicals. They may weigh in excess of 800 lb (364 kg), and should only be moved with a drum dolly, not rolled or dragged. Drums may be made of steel or high-strength plastics.
D. Bonding and Grounding: “Class I Liquids should not be run or dispensed into a container unless the nozzle and container are electrically interconnected.” (OSHA 29 CFR 1910.106(e)(6)(ii), ATEX directive, and NFPA UFC Div. VIII, Sec. 79.803a). An ungrounded static voltage (including from friction) may cause combustion of some fluids. Metal containers must be connected via a common grounding wire made of solid or braided wire, or welded connections, before fluid is poured between them. E. Peroxide-Forming Chemicals: A variety of common chemicals spontaneously form peroxide compounds under ordinary storage conditions due to reaction with oxygen. Peroxides are extraordinarily explosive, and can often be ignited by contact with heat, friction (incl. simply turning the cap of the container), and mechanical shock (incl. shaking, bumping, or dropping). Three classes of peroxide-forming chemicals are of particular interest, and are organized by the precautions that should be taken with unopened and opened containers. Class A Peroxide Formers: the most hazardous class. Unopened: discard or test for peroxides after 12 months or at manufacturer’s expiration date (whichever comes first). Opened: Test for peroxides quarterly. Common class A peroxide formers include: Butadiene (liquid monomer) Isopropyl ether Sodium amide (sodamide) Chloroprene (liquid monomer) Potassium amide Tetrafluoroethylene (liquid monomer) Divinyl acetylene Potassium metal Vinylidene chloride Class B Peroxide Formers: Unopened: discard or test for peroxides after 12 months or at manufacturer’s expiration date (whichever comes first). Opened: test for peroxide formation every 6 months. *Always test this class immediately before any distillation. Common Class B Peroxide Formers include: Acetal Cumene Diacetylene Methylacetylene 1-Phenylethanol Acetaldehyde Cyclohexanol Diethyl ether Methylcyclopentane 2-Phenylethanol Benzyl alcohol 2-Cychlohexen-1-ol Dioxanes MIBK 2-Propanol Benzaldehyde Cyclohexene Ethylene glycol dimethyl ether (glyme) 2-Pentanol Tetrahydrofuran 2-Butanol Decahydronaphthalene Furan 4-Penten-1-ol Class C Peroxide Formers: Same precautions as Class B. Include: Acrylic acid Chloroprene Styrene Vinyl acetylene Vinyladiene chloride Acrylonitirile Chlorotrifluoroethylene Tetrafluoroethylene Vinyl chloride Butadiene Methyl methacrylate Vinyl acetate Vinyl pyridine *Without opening, immediately dispose of any peroxide-forming chemical with any crystalline formation. Be careful not to open, shake, heat, or drop. Testing Peroxide-Forming Chemicals: Peroxide test strips can be bought cheaply online, or various in-lab tests can be performed: One method is to combine the fluid with an equal volume (1-3mL) of acetic acid (AcOH). To this a few drops of a 5% KI solution are added, and a color change indicates the presence of peroxides. Another method adds a small amount of the fluid to be tested (~0.5mL) to ~1mL 10% KI solution and ~0.5mL dilute HCL. To this a few drops of starch indicator are added, and the presence of blue/blue-black color within a minute indicates the presence of peroxides. Fluids with a LOW (<30ppm) concentration of peroxides can often be deperoxidated via filtration through activated alumina, distillation (not for THF!), evaporation, or chromatography. V. Labware Safety A. Glassware:
Always inspect glassware for cracks, chips, or fractures before use. Discard any glassware that is even slightly damaged.
Use glassware for its intended purpose! Heat fluids in a round-bottom boiling flask whenever possible.
Store on a shelf away from the edge. Round-bottomed flasks should be set on cork or tin holders, or padded into a drawer.
Joint grease reduces stuck joints, and therefore breakage.
Always carry glassware with two hands. Do not hold beakers by their sides, or flasks by the neck.
Clean glassware after any procedure, and before as necessary.
B. Support:
Use the fewest amount of clamps such that all structures are firmly held.
Support all flasks with rings.
Assemble apparati from bottom up.
Assemble such that liquid always passes through the male joint. Never allow fluid to pass into the joint. This prevents both leaks and lubricant contamination.
Do not over tighten clamps. Clamps should be tightened the minimum amount that provides a secure frame.
C. Tubing:
Cut glass tubing by placing a single slit in the desired position, then breaking by pulling the edges toward you and pushing the joint out.
Bend glass tubing by heating until red, and pulling ends toward self to form desired angle.
Use lubricant to insert tubing into stoppers, and wear hand protection during assembly.
DO NOT force glass together or into anything. Use minimal pressure, lubricant, and a gentle twisting motion if necessary.
D. Heating:
Heating mantles and hot plates are preferred over bunsen burners in almost all situations. Never unnecessarily introduce a flame to your lab environment.
Avoid rapid temperature changes whenever possible. Borosilicate glass is made for more rapid temperature changes. Heat and cool glass slowly. Do not set hot glass on a cold tabletop or under cold water.
Never look into the mouth of a receptacle that is being heated, or point it towards the self or others.
Use heat resistant gloves and/or tongs to handle hot receptacles or products.
Cover oil baths so they don’t splatter, or use a sand bath in its stead.
Always use boiling chips for reflux and distillation!
E. Electricity:
Be aware of electrical hazards. Check wires periodically, and keep the lab environment dry and clean.
Use power strips to protect equipment.
VI. Reaction Safety A. Fume Hoods: Fume hoods are absolutely essential whenever flammability, toxicity, or accidental intoxication is a concern. That includes all organic solvents, concentrated acids, and concentrated ammonia, as well as any materials that are both volatile and toxic, corrosive, reactive, or intoxicating. The face velocity of a fume hood should be around 100 ft/min or 0.5 m/s. Keep these guidelines in mind when using a fume hood:
Regularly check that air flow is not blocked.
Keep the sash open as little as possible to promote air flow.
Keep all chemicals and glassware at least 6 inches away from the edge of the workspace.
Air should flow from the fume hood directly to the outdoors.
Unfortunately, bees often find that fume hoods are the most difficult apparatus to obtain and install in a private laboratory. Nonetheless, it is imperative that each lab includes one. This is especially important for bees, who often work in confined spaces that can quickly and easily fill with toxic, flammable, or intoxicating vapors. A proper fume hood may cost several thousand dollars. Fortunately, there are many online guides and videos that teach how to construct one for as little as a few hundred dollars. The builder must meticulously ensure that air flow is adequate and constant. The outtake must be properly filtered, and there must not be any leaks through which air can flow other than the space under the sash and the outtake. B. Additional Tips:
Avoid gas chemistry whenever possible. It is often dangerous, difficult, and produces poor quality products and low yields.
Avoid pressurized systems whenever possible. They also present special risks.
After working with potentially pyrophoric agents that may not interact well with water or oxygen, flush apparati with pressurized inert gas before cleaning.
Do not clean bromine contaminated glassware with acetone, which forms bromoacetone, a tear gas.
Always use deionized water- tap water contains interruptive ions such as Mg2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, and Ca2+, as well as dissolved gasses.
VII. Emergency Procedures A. Emergency Shower and Eyewash Stations: If any hazardous chemical comes in contact with the body or eyes, the emergency shower or eye-wash station should be utilized immediately, with continued application for at least 15 minutes. The eyes should be held open for this entire process. Quality eye-wash stations can be purchased online for between 50 and several hundred US dollars. Bees who don’t have one installed are advised to purchase one. Some models can be attached directly to a sink faucet. An alternative, less effective, and minimal necessary precaution is bottled, eye-safe saline solution such as EyeSaline and Physician’s Care Eyewash Station, which can be purchased online for around $10 for a single bottle, and $30+ for kits. At least two bottles should be kept on hand in case both eyes are contaminated. Application of bottled solution to both eyes may require a partner, because the eyes must be held open to maximize effectiveness. For this, and other reasons (speed, difficulty/time of opening bottles vs. pushing a button, and water pressure) an actual eyewash station is in all ways preferred. Faucet-mounted eyewash stations such as the following are very affordable (US $59.95). Recommended Eyewash Station. Bees may not, however, have the space to install a safety shower. The home shower may be used in its stead; however, precaution must be taken to ensure it is easily accessible. The chemist should alert all others in the home/facility that they are working, and require that the door to the shower, and the path to it, be open at all times in case of emergency. B. Fire extinguishers:
Avoid working with flames whenever possible, especially when working with flammable solvents. Hot plates or heating mantles are preferable in almost all situations.
There are four classes of fires:
Class A- ordinary combustibles- wood, cloth, paper- can be extinguished with water, or general fire extinguishers. Class B- organic solvents, flammable liquids- chemical foam extinguishers (also work for class A and C). Class C- electrical equipment- chemical foam extinguishers. Class D- combustible metals such as aluminum, titanium, magnesium, lithium, zirconium, sodium, and potassium.
A dry chemical ABC extinguisher is usually adequate.
If you plan to work with combustible metals (not recommended unless necessary), make sure to have a class D dry chemical fire extinguisher. Other methods or classes of extinguishers will not put out a combustible metal fire. Note that class D fire extinguishers will not work for class A, B, or C fires.
Do not use a CO2 extinguisher- if it has to be used on the person it can cause frostbite and inhibit breathing.
C. Fire blankets: Used for small fires, or to put out a person who has caught fire (laying on ground, standing may cause the fire to move up the body to the head due to a chimney effect). D. Spills: Keep some vinegar or baking soda around to neutralize bases and acids, respectively. After acids and bases are neutralized, the chemical can be mopped up and placed in waste disposal. VIII. Post-Procedure Protocols A. Personal Hygiene: Wash hands, face, and all exposed skin after PPE has been removed to avoid recontamination by touching dirty clothes. Shower and change clothes once possible. B. Facility Hygiene: Clean all surfaces, glassware, and equipment before leaving the lab. Keep laboratory items in the lab, and personal items out of it. Chemicals may be transferred into the home through those items. Additionally, foreign objects have the potential to contaminate sterile laboratory environments. C. Waste Disposal: Waste disposal is one of the most important aspects of safety, image management, public relations, avoidance of fines or criminal charges, and environmental preservation.
Create a waste disposal plan before beginning a procedure or ordering a chemical.
Consult the SDS for all chemicals, individually or in a mixture.
Clearly label all containers, including waste.
Rinse out empty containers with an inert solvent several times before disposal.
Collect aqueous waste separately from organic solvent waste, and place solid waste in a labeled container for disposal. Flammable and toxic waste should be stored in a closed waste container in the fume hood until proper disposal is possible.
Non-hazardous waste may be disposed of in a landfill.
The Article “Management of Waste” found here states, “The best strategy for managing laboratory waste aims to maximize safety and minimize environmental impact, and considers these objectives from the time of purchase.” The article describes four tiers of waste management:
Pollution prevention and source reduction (green chemistry).
Reuse and redistribution of unwanted/surplus material (purchasing only what is needed).
Treatment, reclamation, and recycling of materials within the waste.
Disposal through incineration, treatment, or land burial. Additionally, use of solvent as fuel, or a fuel blender (the least desirable tier).
I hope this safety plan can save a few bees. I know there is a lot of information, but chemical safety is extremely important and multifaceted. Best of luck with your endeavors. Stay safe out there!
Table of Contents: I. Introduction II. Basic Laboratory Safety Rules III. Dress, Preparation, and PPE for Lab Work A. Basic Considerations B. PPE C. Lab Setup D. Behavior and Technique IV. Chemical Safety A. SDS B. Chemical Labeling C. Chemical Storage D. Bonding and Grounding E. Peroxide Forming Molecules and Shelf Lives V. Labware Safety A. Glassware B. Support C. Tubing D. Heat E. Electricity VI. Reaction Safety A. Fume Hoods B. Additional Tips VII. Emergency Procedures A. Emergency Shower and Eyewash Stations B. Fire Extinguishers C. Fire Blankets D. Spills E. First Aid VIII. Post-Procedure Protocols A. Personal Hygiene B. Facility Hygiene C. Waste Disposal IX. List of Edits ____________________________________________________________________________ I. Introduction: Chemistry is an extremely exciting endeavor; however, it can also be an exceedingly dangerous one. Professional chemists are disfigured, maimed, burned, and even killed every year. Clandestine chemists face even greater harm when they have a lack of knowledge, inadequate facilities, no established safety protocol, or a capricious attitude. If you want to be a productive bee, you will face untold hours of preparation. It will prove to be a worthwhile endeavor; however, it is not something to rush, and your chances of success are slim-to-none if you damage yourself, others, or your home/facility. The following document is very long and thorough. We won't pretend that bees are going to follow all of these recommendations, but I urge all baby bees to at least browse this document to become familiarize with the attitude of safety and some of the dangers of laboratory work. I am open to any and all recommendations, questions, and edits- this will be a working document. I wish you all luck in your exploration. Remember, however, that safety in the lab rarely comes down to luck- it is all about preparation, execution, and awareness of your surroundings. Safe travels, fellow bees! II. Basic Laboratory Safety Rules:
Never work alone, and alert others on the premises that you are about to conduct lab work. If you are blinded, set on fire, burnt, frightened, accidentally intoxicated, experience a health emergency, or are otherwise put in danger, you may be unable to remedy the situation alone, which could lead to death, permanent blindness, disfigurement, etc. Be sure that you and/or another has the ability to call 911.
Wear proper PPE at all times and avoid other hazardous dress (see the section on PPE below).
Always prepare for the worst!! Wear the PPE and take the precautions that will protect against the worst case scenario given the chemicals and processes you work with.
Never eat, drink, chew gum, or have any unnecessary items in the lab in case of contamination (of the items, self, or the experiment).
Keep the lab clean, sanitary, and organized.
Never allow walkways or exits to become obstructed.
Thoroughly study the SDS for each chemical you work with.
Have emergency procedures in place, including fire extinguishers, fire blankets, first aid, spill kits, emergency showers, and eyewash station.
Understand peroxide-forming chemicals, and evaluate shelf-lives of materials.
Bond and ground flammable and combustible fluids.
Use a fume hood.
Store and handle reagents properly.
Add acids and bases to water, never vice-versa.
Never look into the end of any glassware wherein a reaction is taking place.
III. Dress, Preparation, and PPE for Lab Work A. Basic Considerations: Before we apply PPE, there are some basic precautions that must be taken in terms of dress and personal hygiene. Do NOT:
Wear loose fitting clothing that may knock things over, catch fire, or soak up chemicals.
Wear jewelry for the above reasons. Metals in jewelry may also react with certain chemicals.
Unnecessarily expose any skin.
Wear contact lenses, unless full, non-ventilated goggles are also worn.
Do:
Maintain personal hygiene to avoid contamination.
Wear all proper PPE, especially gloves and goggles at all times.
Wash hands and change gloves as frequently as possible.
Wear closed-toe, thick, shoes.
Wear tight-fitting clothing that covers as much skin as possible- long sleeves, long pants, closed shirt, and lab coat.
B. PPE (Personal Protective Equipment): The most obvious safety practice is the use of personal protective equipment. However, PPE is the last system of defense against chemical hazards. Practitioners should focus their efforts on the maintenance of a safe work environment, proper training, and the replacement of more with less dangerous chemicals where possible. We will classify PPE into three sections- eye, body, and respiratory protection. (note: larger labs and some rare reactions may also require hearing protection, light-restrictive eye protection, hard hats, and other forms of protection as necessary). Eye Protection: Chemical splash goggles Eye protection is not just to prevent impact, which is all that general safety goggles, with or without side shields, do. General safety goggles and eyeglasses offer limited protection against sprays, and do NOT prevent splash hazards, which may come from any angle or drip down one’s face into the eyes. Additionally, some chemical fumes are eye irritants. Bees should wear chemical splash goggles labeled with the code Z87.1, which denotes compliance with safety standards. The goggles must fit snugly against the face and remain on at all times. Suggestion: Chemical Splash/Impact Goggle.
Do not touch your eyes while in a lab.
Never wear contact lenses in a lab- some chemicals may react with them, and liquids may get trapped under them, exacerbating eye damage and reducing effectiveness of emergency eye washes.
Face shields that cover the entire face may be necessary for chemicals that are particularly corrosive, flammable, or explosive.
Body Protection: Long clothes that cover as much skin as possible is a must. This means closed shoes or boots, pants, long sleeves, a lab coat, and gloves. Tie back long hair. Change gloves and wash hands as often as possible, especially before leaving the lab. Recognize that touching things such as your phone with your gloves on may spread toxic chemicals.
Gloves: Keep a large amount of gloves on hand. This includes boxes of traditional nitrile/latex gloves, and at least one pair each of heat/cold resistant and thick-rubber, arm-length, corrosive-resistant gloves.
All gloves are permeable- even the proper glove will only protect for a period of time. Many chemicals will eventually work their way through them. It is imperative that gloves are changed and hands washed as often as possible.
If more than one type of hand protection is necessary, multi-hazard protective gloves are available; otherwise, gloves may be layered.
All used gloves should be considered hazardous. Throw them away in a safe place, and do not wear or carry them outside of the lab area.
2. Lab Coats: Multi-hazard protection lab coats are best, and should be both fire (FR) and chemical splash (CP) resistant. Most basic lab coats found online or in stores are not FCP. Proper coats are more expensive, but are absolutely worthwhile as they may prevent fire, chemical burns, and even death (research the UCLA tert-butyllithium incident). Here is an example of a proper lab coat: Lab Coat.
If you work with corrosive chemicals, a chemical splash apron, arm-length rubber gloves, and face shields may be necessary.
Keep lab coats in the lab area unless they are washed. They should be assumed to contain hazardous chemicals.
3. Respiratory Protection: Never smell chemicals or inhale their fumes. Use a fume hood when necessary and keep containers closed tightly. In case of a large chemical spill, evacuate immediately. Use a fume hood with any organic solvent, concentrated acids, and concentrated ammonia. Use respirators when working with fine powders or toxic fumes. C. Lab setup: Develop a thorough floor plan before equipping your lab. Priorities:
Ventilation- Air must flow from other areas of the facility or home to the lab area, and subsequently out of the building. Fume hoods must immediately direct airflow out of building.
Maximize open work space and visibility, and minimize obstruction throughout the work area.
Allow ample space between and within workstations.
Include ample lighting.
Include ample (excess) storage space that is separate from lab spaces where reactions take place.
Use OSHA approved acid, corrosive, and flammable storage cabinets.
Strategically place first aid, wash stations, spill control kits, fire extinguishers and blankets such that all are easily accessible in case of emergency, and such that an emergency itself (e.g. fire) will not obstruct access.
Doors should, preferably, hinge outward to promote prompt evacuation.
All wash stations must have a proper drain.
Large sinks are best, and there should be one per workstation.
All electrical and gas lines must be easily severable or closable.
Black epoxy resin surfaces are preferred.
Install and routinely check smoke detectors.
D. Behavior and Technique:
Keep a proper lab notebook that records all procedures.
Gather all needed glassware, labware, and chemicals before beginning an experiment.
Keep all equipment clean and dry when not in use.
Never add solvent to acids, bases, etc!! This could result in a violent reaction. All ways prepare the solvent first, and slowly add the acid or base to it.
Eliminate distractions.
Stay organized and keep the lab uncluttered.
Bond and ground when pouring flammable or combustible liquids.
Use the right tool for the job. Do not skimp or substitute glassware.
IV. Chemical Safety A. SDS: The first and most vital step to understand how to safely handle chemicals is thorough, proper, and regular review of Safety Data Sheets. It is recommended that physical copies of SDSs be kept for all chemicals in the laboratory. Safety Data Sheets can be found online as well, and should be reviewed each time a chemical is used, at least until one has extensive experience with that chemical. Safety and storage information should also be reviewed for any compounds synthesized, as well as any side products or impurities. The format of an SDS is an update to the traditional MSDS, and follows the guidelines prescribed by the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals (GHS) established in March 2012. A traditional MSDS is likely to contain all or most of the necessary information; however, SDS has the benefit of a strict and easy to follow format that includes the following 16 sections: Section 1—Identification: Chemical/product name, name and contact information of producer. Section 2—Hazard(s) Identification: All known hazards of the chemical and required label elements. The GHS identifies three hazard classes: health (toxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, etc.), physical (corrosive, flammable, combustible, etc.), and environmental hazards. There are 16 types of physical hazards and 10 types of health hazards. Next to each listed hazard is a rank/category from 1-4, with 1 being the most severe level of hazard. Next are hazard pictograms, a signal word, and hazard (H) statements and precautionary (P) statements. Pictograms allow chemists to quickly understand the basic hazards of a chemical, and must be on the chemical label. What pictograms a chemical requires is quantitatively determined, and users should become familiar with them. 📷 There are two signal words- Danger!, and Warning!, the former being more serious than the latter. P and H statements list specifically hazardous situations and precautions that must be taken when handling the chemical. Section 3—Composition/Information on Ingredients Section 4—First-Aid Measures Section 5—Fire-Fighting Measures Section 6—Accidental Release Measures: What to do in case of accidental spill or release of chemicals, proper containment, and cleanup. Section 7—Handling and Storage Section 8—Exposure Controls/Personal Protection: Includes exposure limits. Section 9—Physical and Chemical Properties: appearance, odor, flashpoint, solubility, pH, evaporation rates, etc. Section 10—Stability and Reactivity: Chemical stability and possible hazardous reactions. Section 11—Toxicological Information: Routes of exposure (inhalation, ingestion, or absorption contact), symptoms, acute and chronic effects, and numerical measures of toxicity. Sections 12-15 are optional, but include ecological information, disposal considerations, transportation information, and regulatory information. Section 16-- includes any additional information the producer may want to portray. B. Chemical Labeling: All chemicals should be labeled at all times to avoid hazard, confusion, and waste.
Containers that are being used in a procedure (beakers, flasks, wash bottles, etc.) may simply be labeled with a piece of scotch tape and a permanent marker.
Vessels that will be heated can be labeled with a heat-resistant paint marker.
Chemicals that will be stored (whether produced or purchased) should be labeled with at minimum the chemical name, date of production/purchase/opening, and safety concerns. Simple labels may be used for containers that are not in the manufacturer’s packaging.
C. Chemical Storage: General Reagents:
Keep storage spaces organized, clean, and uncluttered.
All chemicals should be stored properly whenever not in use.
Store bottles away from shelf edges, and/or have lipped shelves to prevent falls from, and contain spills on, shelves.
Keep seals tight.
Keep an inventory.
Always label chemicals properly, including the dates received and opened.
Bees may opt to cover glass containers in clear packing tape to reduce mess if a bottle is broken.
Store flammable and combustible liquids in a flammable cabinet. An old fridge is a good method of storage for bees. Never store food or drink in the same refrigerator.
Do not store liquids above solids.
Always store corrosive chemicals on spill trays.
Store odoriferous and toxic chemicals in ventilated cabinets.
Keep heavy containers on bottom shelves, and don’t store in high places or on the floor unless properly protected.
Acetone with- bromine, chlorine, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, or hydrogen peroxide (do not use acetone to clean receptacles that have had these chemicals in them!).
Iodine with- acetylene, ammonia, or hydrogen.
Water- keep all other chemicals away from water unless in solution. Especially avoid hydration of acetyl chloride, alkaline and alkaline earth metals, barium peroxide, carbides, chromic acid, phosphorus oxychloride, phosphorus pentachloride, phosphorous pentoxide, sulfuric acid, or sulfur trioxide.
Nitric Acid with- acetone, acetic acid, alcohol, chromic acid, aniline, hydrocyanic acid, hydrogen sulfide, or any flammable substances (keep this in mind when cleaning with nitric acid).
Hydrogen Peroxide with- copper, chromium, iron, most metals or salts of metals, alcohols, acetone, organic materials, aniline, nitromethane, flammable liquids, ammonia, or oxidizing agents.
Zinc and sulfur.
Mercury with- acetylene, fulminic acid, or ammonia.
Compressed Gasses:
Keep cylinders of compressed gasses secured
Keep appropriate breathing apparati in the vicinity, but not immediately near the compressed gases in case of emergency.
Keep the valve cap secured unless in use or connected to a line.
Do not store flammable gases near oxidizers or combustible materials.
Do not allow a cylinder to empty completely.
Dispose of cylinders after ten years, or three in the case of corrosive and toxic chemicals.
Note: avoid working with gases when possible. Gas chemistry has many complications, is often unsafe, and produces poor yields and poor quality products. Bulk Storage Containers:
Carboys: These are great for general purpose, and storage of chemicals no longer in their original container. However, they are not ideal for transport or use with acids, caustics, flammable liquids, or corrosive substances.
Safety Cans: have spring loaded lids and flame arresters. They are good for fluids in volumes less than five gallons, are safe for transporting most chemicals, and can be had for around $80. Recommended Safety Can.
Drums: for bulk chemicals. They may weigh in excess of 800 lb (364 kg), and should only be moved with a drum dolly, not rolled or dragged. Drums may be made of steel or high-strength plastics.
D. Bonding and Grounding: “Class I Liquids should not be run or dispensed into a container unless the nozzle and container are electrically interconnected.” (OSHA 29 CFR 1910.106(e)(6)(ii), ATEX directive, and NFPA UFC Div. VIII, Sec. 79.803a). An ungrounded static voltage (including from friction) may cause combustion of some fluids. Metal containers must be connected via a common grounding wire made of solid or braided wire, or welded connections, before fluid is poured between them. E. Peroxide-Forming Chemicals: A variety of common chemicals spontaneously form peroxide compounds under ordinary storage conditions due to reaction with oxygen. Peroxides are extraordinarily explosive, and can often be ignited by contact with heat, friction (incl. simply turning the cap of the container), and mechanical shock (incl. shaking, bumping, or dropping). Three classes of peroxide-forming chemicals are of particular interest, and are organized by the precautions that should be taken with unopened and opened containers. Class A Peroxide Formers: the most hazardous class. Unopened: discard or test for peroxides after 12 months or at manufacturer’s expiration date (whichever comes first). Opened: Test for peroxides quarterly. Common class A peroxide formers include: Butadiene (liquid monomer) Isopropyl ether Sodium amide (sodamide) Chloroprene (liquid monomer) Potassium amide Tetrafluoroethylene (liquid monomer) Divinyl acetylene Potassium metal Vinylidene chloride Class B Peroxide Formers: Unopened: discard or test for peroxides after 12 months or at manufacturer’s expiration date (whichever comes first). Opened: test for peroxide formation every 6 months. *Always test this class immediately before any distillation. Common Class B Peroxide Formers include: Acetal Cumene Diacetylene Methylacetylene 1-Phenylethanol Acetaldehyde Cyclohexanol Diethyl ether Methylcyclopentane 2-Phenylethanol Benzyl alcohol 2-Cychlohexen-1-ol Dioxanes MIBK 2-Propanol Benzaldehyde Cyclohexene Ethylene glycol dimethyl ether (glyme) 2-Pentanol Tetrahydrofuran 2-Butanol Decahydronaphthalene Furan 4-Penten-1-ol Class C Peroxide Formers: Same precautions as Class B. Include: Acrylic acid Chloroprene Styrene Vinyl acetylene Vinyladiene chloride Acrylonitirile Chlorotrifluoroethylene Tetrafluoroethylene Vinyl chloride Butadiene Methyl methacrylate Vinyl acetate Vinyl pyridine *Without opening, immediately dispose of any peroxide-forming chemical with any crystalline formation. Be careful not to open, shake, heat, or drop. Testing Peroxide-Forming Chemicals: Peroxide test strips can be bought cheaply online, or various in-lab tests can be performed: One method is to combine the fluid with an equal volume (1-3mL) of acetic acid (AcOH). To this a few drops of a 5% KI solution are added, and a color change indicates the presence of peroxides. Another method adds a small amount of the fluid to be tested (~0.5mL) to ~1mL 10% KI solution and ~0.5mL dilute HCL. To this a few drops of starch indicator are added, and the presence of blue/blue-black color within a minute indicates the presence of peroxides. Fluids with a LOW (<30ppm) concentration of peroxides can often be deperoxidated via filtration through activated alumina, distillation (not for THF!), evaporation, or chromatography. V. Labware Safety A. Glassware:
Always inspect glassware for cracks, chips, or fractures before use. Discard any glassware that is even slightly damaged.
Use glassware for its intended purpose! Heat fluids in a round-bottom boiling flask whenever possible.
Store on a shelf away from the edge. Round-bottomed flasks should be set on cork or tin holders, or padded into a drawer.
Joint grease reduces stuck joints, and therefore breakage.
Always carry glassware with two hands. Do not hold beakers by their sides, or flasks by the neck.
Clean glassware after any procedure, and before as necessary.
B. Support:
Use the fewest amount of clamps such that all structures are firmly held.
Support all flasks with rings.
Assemble apparati from bottom up.
Assemble such that liquid always passes through the male joint. Never allow fluid to pass into the joint. This prevents both leaks and lubricant contamination.
Do not over tighten clamps. Clamps should be tightened the minimum amount that provides a secure frame.
C. Tubing:
Cut glass tubing by placing a single slit in the desired position, then breaking by pulling the edges toward you and pushing the joint out.
Bend glass tubing by heating until red, and pulling ends toward self to form desired angle.
Use lubricant to insert tubing into stoppers, and wear hand protection during assembly.
DO NOT force glass together or into anything. Use minimal pressure, lubricant, and a gentle twisting motion if necessary.
D. Heating:
Heating mantles and hot plates are preferred over bunsen burners in almost all situations. Never unnecessarily introduce a flame to your lab environment.
Avoid rapid temperature changes whenever possible. Borosilicate glass is made for more rapid temperature changes. Heat and cool glass slowly. Do not set hot glass on a cold tabletop or under cold water.
Never look into the mouth of a receptacle that is being heated, or point it towards the self or others.
Use heat resistant gloves and/or tongs to handle hot receptacles or products.
Cover oil baths so they don’t splatter, or use a sand bath in its stead.
Always use boiling chips for reflux and distillation!
E. Electricity:
Be aware of electrical hazards. Check wires periodically, and keep the lab environment dry and clean.
Use power strips to protect equipment.
VI. Reaction Safety A. Fume Hoods: Fume hoods are absolutely essential whenever flammability, toxicity, or accidental intoxication is a concern. That includes all organic solvents, concentrated acids, and concentrated ammonia, as well as any materials that are both volatile and toxic, corrosive, reactive, or intoxicating. The face velocity of a fume hood should be around 100 ft/min or 0.5 m/s. Keep these guidelines in mind when using a fume hood:
Regularly check that air flow is not blocked.
Keep the sash open as little as possible to promote air flow.
Keep all chemicals and glassware at least 6 inches away from the edge of the workspace.
Air should flow from the fume hood directly to the outdoors.
Unfortunately, bees often find that fume hoods are the most difficult apparatus to obtain and install in a private laboratory. Nonetheless, it is imperative that each lab includes one. This is especially important for bees, who often work in confined spaces that can quickly and easily fill with toxic, flammable, or intoxicating vapors. A proper fume hood may cost several thousand dollars. Fortunately, there are many online guides and videos that teach how to construct one for as little as a few hundred dollars. The builder must meticulously ensure that air flow is adequate and constant. The outtake must be properly filtered, and there must not be any leaks through which air can flow other than the space under the sash and the outtake. B. Additional Tips:
Avoid gas chemistry whenever possible. It is often dangerous, difficult, and produces poor quality products and low yields.
Avoid pressurized systems whenever possible. They also present special risks.
After working with potentially pyrophoric agents that may not interact well with water or oxygen, flush apparati with pressurized inert gas before cleaning.
Do not clean bromine contaminated glassware with acetone, which forms bromoacetone, a tear gas.
Always use deionized water- tap water contains interruptive ions such as Mg2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, and Ca2+, as well as dissolved gasses.
VII. Emergency Procedures A. Emergency Shower and Eyewash Stations: If any hazardous chemical comes in contact with the body or eyes, the emergency shower or eye-wash station should be utilized immediately, with continued application for at least 15 minutes. The eyes should be held open for this entire process. Quality eye-wash stations can be purchased online for between 50 and several hundred US dollars. Bees who don’t have one installed are advised to purchase one. Some models can be attached directly to a sink faucet. An alternative, less effective, and minimal necessary precaution is bottled, eye-safe saline solution such as EyeSaline and Physician’s Care Eyewash Station, which can be purchased online for around $10 for a single bottle, and $30+ for kits. At least two bottles should be kept on hand in case both eyes are contaminated. Application of bottled solution to both eyes may require a partner, because the eyes must be held open to maximize effectiveness. For this, and other reasons (speed, difficulty/time of opening bottles vs. pushing a button, and water pressure) an actual eyewash station is in all ways preferred. Faucet-mounted eyewash stations such as the following are very affordable (US $59.95). Recommended Eyewash Station. Bees may not, however, have the space to install a safety shower. The home shower may be used in its stead; however, precaution must be taken to ensure it is easily accessible. The chemist should alert all others in the home/facility that they are working, and require that the door to the shower, and the path to it, be open at all times in case of emergency. B. Fire extinguishers:
Avoid working with flames whenever possible, especially when working with flammable solvents. Hot plates or heating mantles are preferable in almost all situations.
There are four classes of fires:
Class A- ordinary combustibles- wood, cloth, paper- can be extinguished with water, or general fire extinguishers. Class B- organic solvents, flammable liquids- chemical foam extinguishers (also work for class A and C). Class C- electrical equipment- chemical foam extinguishers. Class D- combustible metals such as aluminum, titanium, magnesium, lithium, zirconium, sodium, and potassium.
A dry chemical ABC extinguisher is usually adequate.
If you plan to work with combustible metals (not recommended unless necessary), make sure to have a class D dry chemical fire extinguisher. Other methods or classes of extinguishers will not put out a combustible metal fire. Note that class D fire extinguishers will not work for class A, B, or C fires.
Do not use a CO2 extinguisher- if it has to be used on the person it can cause frostbite and inhibit breathing.
C. Fire blankets: Used for small fires, or to put out a person who has caught fire (laying on ground, standing may cause the fire to move up the body to the head due to a chimney effect). D. Spills: Keep some vinegar or baking soda around to neutralize bases and acids, respectively. After acids and bases are neutralized, the chemical can be mopped up and placed in waste disposal. VIII. Post-Procedure Protocols A. Personal Hygiene: Wash hands, face, and all exposed skin after PPE has been removed to avoid recontamination by touching dirty clothes. Shower and change clothes once possible. B. Facility Hygiene: Clean all surfaces, glassware, and equipment before leaving the lab. Keep laboratory items in the lab, and personal items out of it. Chemicals may be transferred into the home through those items. Additionally, foreign objects have the potential to contaminate sterile laboratory environments. C. Waste Disposal: Waste disposal is one of the most important aspects of safety, image management, public relations, avoidance of fines or criminal charges, and environmental preservation.
Create a waste disposal plan before beginning a procedure or ordering a chemical.
Consult the SDS for all chemicals, individually or in a mixture.
Clearly label all containers, including waste.
Rinse out empty containers with an inert solvent several times before disposal.
Collect aqueous waste separately from organic solvent waste, and place solid waste in a labeled container for disposal. Flammable and toxic waste should be stored in a closed waste container in the fume hood until proper disposal is possible.
Non-hazardous waste may be disposed of in a landfill.
The Article “Management of Waste” found here states, “The best strategy for managing laboratory waste aims to maximize safety and minimize environmental impact, and considers these objectives from the time of purchase.” The article describes four tiers of waste management:
Pollution prevention and source reduction (green chemistry).
Reuse and redistribution of unwanted/surplus material (purchasing only what is needed).
Treatment, reclamation, and recycling of materials within the waste.
Disposal through incineration, treatment, or land burial. Additionally, use of solvent as fuel, or a fuel blender (the least desirable tier).
I hope this safety plan can save a few bees. I know there is a lot of information, but chemical safety is extremely important and multifaceted. Best of luck with your endeavors. Stay safe out there!
The Racist Origins and Painful Legacy of Atlanta's Zoning
I'm going to start this post off with a few disclaimers:
A good amount of my information comes from The Color of Law, by Richard Rothstein. I tried to find as many direct sources for the relevant topics brought up in the book as I could, but they weren't always readily availible. I highly encourage you to read the book itself if you want more details and his sources.
While I am going to try to use Atlanta-specific information as much as possible, there are some things that I can only provide evidence for in general, not to mention that I have to discuss this with the wider national historical context as well since Atlanta was but one part of a massive racist horror show.
I am by no means claiming to be an expert on this material. It's just what I have the most supporting information already at had for. Again, if you want to read more details from someone who spent much more time researching than I have, pick up a copy of The Color of Law.
I am by no means claiming that fixing zoning will be the end-all-be-all of segregation legacy, nor that it will singularly solve disparities for minority populations compared to white populations within the city. Undoing the sheer scale of bullshit put in place to codify segregation and racial suppression as it manifests today is an undertaking requiring effort on par with something like the Green New Deal (coincidentally, there can be quite a lot of overlap in with a GND, and that's why climate and social justice are so often packaged with various versions of a GND). Fixing the legacy of racist zoning's impacts is just one part to an incredibly complex system, but it's still one worthy of doing. Gotta start somewhere, right?
Alright, on to the main content... Buckleupkiddos,we'regoingforafuckinride!
Why the Fuck are you Talking About Zoning Right Now‽
The country is, to use an incredible amount of understatement, in a bit of a pickle right now. We're in the midst of a global pandemic that's surging, and resurging within our borders. We're reeling at a seemingly never ending parade of tragedy and failure of composure from the very police forces sworn to protect us. We're dealing with an ever escalating push back and response from a federal government that is attempting to label protesters as terrorists. We've had impeachments, assassinations of foreign political operatives, the emboldenment of out-and-loud racists, foreign bounties on our military, historic Supreme Court decisions, and record stock market crashes. We're staring down the barrel of a depression, and there's a looming climate catastrophe that's been burning in the background of all of this. So why, in the middle of all of this, am I bringing up zoning of all things? How could that possibly be relevant to any of this? Well... as it turns out... quite a bit. See, zoning is one of those core functions of government, generally on the local level but not always, that just kinda exists. It's a long, boring, complicated mess of legal code that just doesn't come up all that often in our every day discussions (unless you're a nerd like me who keeps trying to shove it into every conversation... ahem...). No matter how innocuous or intangible or boring zoning may feel, though, it actually has massive ramifications for how our build environment is shaped. That is literally its job, after all: codifying what is and isn't allowed to be built, where, and how. That build environment then has massive ramifications on a whole pile of social, economic, and environmental issues. A good zoning code balances public desires for safety, health, and environmental protections, while also helping to ensure various amenities are provided, ideally outweighing any downsides of development with benefits to the community at large. Unfortunately, most zoning systems fail at this balance, often focusing on the wrong components as perceived negatives when they're actually benefits, while codifying build requirements that actively make things worse for the communities around them. A bad zoning code can make housing more expensive, make it harder to meet climate and environmental goals, make the general population more sickly, impede the ability of persons to generate generational wealth, and horrendously damage the tax base, making it harder to fund public projects. As it turns out, most of these issues trace back to a few core ideas of the initial model zoning systems, and were originally put in as features of the codes. The intent at the time was mainly focused on creating a few specific negative outcomes, with many of the others having taken decades to fully manifest and be recognized. Yet, the original structure of the codes remain, bureaucratic momentum and an incomplete understanding of justice keeping them in place, dragging out the problems for years and years and years. So what were those features, and what specific negative outcomes were they trying to achieve?
Setting the Stage for Segregation
First, we have to step back, and take a bit of a historical run up to provide proper context. In 1877, Reconstruction ended. Federal troops, who had defeated the Confederacy, packed up and left the south after 12 years of postbellum occupation (14 if you include overlap years of occupation before the war's end). Reconstruction, though certainly not perfect, had been a time of relative empowerment for black Americans. Backed by federal troops, integration and political power was actually in reach. It wasn't 40-acres and a mule, but it was an incredible leap forward as the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments were enforced in about as blunt a way as possible: at the muzzle of a rifle. That all came to a painful and tragic end with the election of Republican Rutherford B. Hayes, who had promised southern Democrats the end of occupation in exchange for electoral support. Almost immediately, black Americans suffered a bloody, violent resurgence of oppression, with segregation becoming standard practice, and enforced both at the hands of local law enforcement and mobs of white Americans. Worse yet, as Jim Crow laws and their efforts anchored themselves across the south, previously diverse and inclusive (relatively speaking) parts of the country began to follow suit. All over, towns and cities undertook the effort of removing, or isolating their black populations, using similar tactics learned from the southern states. Like a cancer, segregation spread far and wide, becoming more and more recognized and acceptable. By 1913, freshly elected president Woodrow Wilson and his cabinet approved the implementation of segregation in federal offices, marking about as drastic a change in federal priority as you could take over the course of three and a half decades. It is in this atmosphere of invigorated racist bullshit that zoning rises within the policy consciousness.
The Original Sin of Zoning
As a concept, zoning ordinances within the U.S. were rather new, with the 1908 Los Angeles municipal zoning ordinances being the first of their kind. The LA laws were a formalizing of existing nuisance laws, meant to create separations of land use and buffers between the harmful effects of industries and residences. Though specific business classifications (such as unnecessary prohibition of laundries, which were predominantly owned by Chinese immigrants at the time, in certain areas) did come with racial issues, they were quite tame by the standards of the time, as we're about to see. Prior to the rise of zoning as a popular government effort, it was fairly rare to see actual legal code dedicated towards segregation, instead focusing efforts on government-endorsed vigilantism and governments not enforcing equality laws already in place. This began to change, however. In 1910, a few years before the federal government would make official its office segregation, and two years after the LA zoning system was established, Baltimore became the first city in the nation, (as stated by the New York Times), to create an explicit law mandating the segregation of city areas. The city ordinance dictated that blacks could not buy homes on blocks where whites were the majority, and vice versa. The law was... horribly broken, and judges had to grapple with the complex, integrated reality of the city, trying to adjudicate who could and couldn't live where, or buy property where, creating an incredible mess of legal issues across the city. The practical problems with the law did not stop other cities from copying the effort, though. Invigorated by Baltimore's example, Birmingham, Dade County (Miami), Charleston, Dallas, Louisville, New Orleans, Oklahoma City, Richmond, St. Louis, and others all made their own version of racial segregaition mandates within landuse. Amungst this list was, in fact, the City of Atlanta, whose ordinance virtually copied the Baltimore law, with the added provision that a person of one color occupying a house in a mixed block could object to one of another color moving next door. Unlike the initial LA zoning laws, the systems put in place following Baltimore's example were specifically racially focused, with more familiar zoning laws taking shape in the years to come. These initial racist laws would persist until the 1917 Supreme Court decision that such laws were unconstitutional in Buchanan v. Warley. However... the decision was based around the freedom of individuals to buy and sell property to whomever they wished, rather than a denunciation of segregation within law itself. Many cities simply ignored the Supreme Court ruling, and moved ahead with their segregationist laws, while others claimed that slight variations in the ordinances, such as the difference between block level and larger zoning styles, meant they didn't have to follow the ruling. The City of Atlanta was, once again, one of these cities. In The Atlanta Zone Plan: Report Outlining a Tentative Zone Plan for Atlanta (1922), written by Robert H. Whitten as a consultant for the the City Planning Commission, explicit residential districts were outlined by racial makeup, with R1 as "white residence district", R2 as "colored residence district", and R3 as "undetermined race district". It was nice enough to allow servants' quarters remain open to either race. The plan justifies this by saying:
the above race zoning is essential in the interest of the public peace, order and security and will promote the welfare and prosperity of both the white and colored race.
Additionally, Whitten defended his zoning plan in professional publications by saying that "[e]stablishing colored residence districts has removed one of the most potent causes of race conflict." This, he added, was "a sufficient justification for race zoning.... A reasonable segregation is normal, inevitable and desirable." Here is a map of the proposed zoning system within the then city limits. You can get an idea of just how limited housing areas for blacks were, just how much of the city was to be dedicated to single family housing compared to apartments, and how relegated commercial uses would be. Incidentally enough, this is where the City of Atlanta begins to see a zoning code similar to modern codes. We'll get to that in a moment. For now, note how closely this map matches some of the racial demographics of the city today, oh, and (just coincidentally I'm sure) how the largest 'Colored District' in the city was to be essentially bordered on three sides by industrial areas. Other zoning maps from the same time would go further with encroaching industrial zones, limiting colored areas, and limiting apartment areas. CanIjusttakeamomenttosayhowmuchIfuckinglovetheAtlantaHistoryCenteranditsarchives?Okay,movingon. At the same time that Atlanta was ignoring its constitutional duty to not segregate its people, the federal government was stepping into the zoning game. In 1921, then Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover organized an Advisory Committee on Zoning to develop a manual explaining why every municipality should develop a zoning ordinance, with an eventual goal of developing model legislation that could be easily adopted. This committee had such members as Frederick Law Olmsted, who argued in 1918 that not only were certain housing types "coincident with racial divisions", and, since it was undesirable to "force the mingling of people who are not yet ready to mingle", great care should be take not to mix housing types, and Irving B. Hiett, who was the president of the National Association of Real Estate Boards, an organization who would produce a code of realtor ethics stating that "A Realtor should never be instrumental in introducing into a neighborhood... members of any race or nationality... detrimental to property values" just a few years later. By 1922, the committee had developed A Zoning Primer, which argued that zoning was required to preserve property values, and which was widely distributed across the country. The policies would push out wide and far across the nation, following the federal government's example.
Pretending as if Racist Plans Aren't
In 1924, the Georgia Supreme Court struck down the City of Atlanta zoning code due to its racial components. Despite this, the underlying plan and map developed with segregation in mind, would act as the basis for future plans. Indeed, there are many overlaps with the 1922 plan, and even zoning designations today. Keep Whitten's and the Zoning Commission's mentalities concerning the importance of racial segregation when looking back through the rest of the initial Atlanta zoning proposal. It provides leading anecdotes (without apparent supporting evidence beyond some photographs that don't really seem to match the narrative) of the dangers of mixing small stores, and low-rise multi-family housing with lower densities, primarily focusing on the perceived loss of value of adjacent properties, while framing the persons who make such developments as greedy speculators only out for a quick buck (rather than look at the economic benefit to the store owner, the new access to the store that surrounding areas get, and the housing relief the apartment dwellers experience). Still without apparent evidence, the proposal makes sweeping, generalized statements about the need to preserve neighborhoods' character, and preserve property values. It proposes to do this by dividing the city into use, height, area, and race categories, with each mixing with the others to dictate specific allowances. The racial categories were removed, yet the remainder of the plan's suggestions would persist. Even in 1917 it was understood that density was a major component of affordability. Special City Plan Adviser for the City Plan Commission of Cleveland Ohio Robert H. Whitten's essay The Zoning of Residence Sections, where Olmsted argued the merits of preventing the mixing of people and their racially pre-dis-positioned housing preferences, outright states:
We want to distribute the population as much as practicable, but at the same time we do not wish to force people who for business or other reasons need to live close to the central business sections either to pay very high rents or to go to much less convenient locations. As a city reaches metropolitan size, the demand for housing space near the central area becomes so great that the only way to make that location available to any but the wealthy is to permit a more intensive utilization of the land. Were it not for the ability to pile one dwelling on top of another, rents would be prohibitive in these central locations for the great mass of the people.
Even while expounding on the virtues of low-density housing, Whitten takes effort to acknowledge the economic need for multi-family housing to maintain affordability. Yeah, it's done in a condescending way where he can only imagine a case where being adjacent to the central business district is a legitimate reason for housing density, but he at least still accepts it as reality. Yet, dwelling house districts, from which apartment houses would be excluded, were to include the larger portion of the area of Atlanta, and were to primarily be made up of the largest area class, requiring at least 5000 sqft per family of lot area. The code outright targets 2-3 story buildings with families living over a store (generally which they would operate) as being undesirable, and thus is explicitly designed to prevent such outcomes. All of these things drove up the per-house price, requiring a family to pay for a significant amount of land, as well as an individual house, in the majority of the city's residential area. In the maps I linked above, you can see just how few areas were allowed to have apartments compared to the wider single-family zones. The federal zoning primer includes similar sentiments, telling an anecdote of how an apartment house built next to a home would destroy values by becoming 'a giant airless hive, housing human beings like crowded bees', as well as lumping 'sporadic stores' in with 'factories or junk yards' as a contributing factor of blight within a residential neighborhood. It's important to note that none of these codes tried to make improvements to living conditions through legislation like building codes, which could have helped prevent the squalor conditions that were so readily associated with apartments, and which had been present in the U.S. since at least 1859, in Baltimore, choosing instead to essentially quarantine apartments to prevent their spread into single family areas. As I laid out above, these are all value judgements made by people who viewed the mixing of races as something to avoid, as something that itself would contribute to a loss of property values (rather than recognize that self-fulfilling white panic, was the actual source of value drop, and that the constrained black populations were willing to pay higher prices because there were so few homes they could even get into, actually raising prices), and even made racial connections to types of housing to keep separated. But, because of the insistence of the courts, their policies were forced to take on an air of race neutrality. Thus, explicit race-based zoning was stripped from the codes, and the far more familiar forms of space and use based zoning were established. Those forms just so happen to harshly restrict the kinds of housing openly accepted as being affordable to the masses, and, in particular, the demographics of people who were least economically able to choose elsewhere. As the federal zoning primer said: Zoning Is Legal This is not to say that exclusionary zoning was not without its legal challenges, of course. In the 1926 Supreme Court case of Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co., 272 U.S. 365, the court upheld the constitutionality of exclusionary zoning, using as part of its opinion the argument that "very often the apartment house is a mere parasite", and that, if allowed to mix with single-family houses, "come very near to being nuisances". The case was brought to the Supreme Court as an appeal to a U.S. District Court of Ohio ruling against the constitutionality of exclusionary zoning, stating that "the blighting of property values and the congesting of the population, whenever the colored or certain foreign races invade a residential section, are so well known as to be within the judicial cognizance." Essentially, while the Supreme Court decided that exclusionary zoning was based on inherit issues with mixing building types (even though 1) the issues aren't inherit, and 2) the exclusion argument is based on a slippery slope fallacy), the District Court had (correctly) identified an underlying racial motivation for preventing mixing.
When the Pretending Becomes More Overt
Were all else equal, we might be able to ignore the initial racial components of exclusionary zoning, and merely call the resulting codes classist (the reality is that racism and classism were/are tightly intertwined, with each giving perceived justification to the other), but things weren't equal. The median household income for a black family in 1947 (the earliest year I could actually find data) was just 51% of a white household (it was only up to ~63% in 2018). Even though modern discussion around apartments tends to bemoan the 'luxury' branding, and how accurate it may or may not be, the hard reality is that living in an apartment is cheaper than buying a house, at least in the immediate. For lower income people, it's pretty much the only option. For poor, and thus disproportionately black, people, the primary need for housing affordability was in the form of apartment buildings and residential density, even if that was only desired as a stepping stone. But that's not what the zoning system provided. Overwhelmingly, the city's land was designated for single family homes. Large lots, and individual homes drive up the per-unit costs of housing, locking poorer people out of being able to buy into neighborhoods. Worse yet would be the zoning systems of suburban and smaller towns, which would eliminate the ability to build apartments all together, essentially locking lower income, and thus disproportionately black, persons from being able to relocate there at all. This lead to crowding in the limited apartments, and, since the building codes hadn't been adequately updated to actually prevent it, the very slum conditions used as a justification for preventing apartments in the first place became self-fulfilling. Of course, not all black people were so poor that they couldn't afford to buy a single-family home, and quite a few did look to leave the limited availability of apartments. They were not met well, and indeed, in the years following the installation of exclusionary zoning systems, the federal government would essentially codify black exclusion from single-family neighborhoods, with cities clinging to the federal policies as justification for blocking black and integrated housing. Property (particularly home) mortgages used to be very, very different than how we think of them today, which locked many people out of the ability to get them. High-interest rates, huge down-payments, interest-only payments, and short (5-7 year) payback periods. These terms kept middle and low class persons (of all races) from being able to afford to buy property. As part of the New Deal, the Home Owners' Loan Corporation was established. The loan system was restructured to be closer to the lower rates, lower down-payments, overall payment, and long-term periods we're more familiar with today. Additionally, many existing mortgages were bought and restructured to save property owners from foreclosure. In the process of this, though, HOLC wanted an inventory of risk across the nation, so it could manage these new loan terms without crippling itself financially. This is where the kinda okay policy stopped. The risk inventory was carried out by local real estate agencies, who had national ethics codes and local policies for their agents to explicitly consider race when evaluating risk. So much so that they were actually under direction to maintain community segregation when otherwise selling properties. The inventory took the form of color-coded maps, where red sections on the map represented high-risk (don't loan people money / bail them out here). Many, many of these red areas were based on racial prejudice, with even wealthy / middle class integrated or black communities being rated far worse than equivalent income white areas. Here is a database of maps across the U.S., overlaid against modern areas. Here's a fun game: compare the Redlining Map for Atlanta to the initial racial zoning map! No it's not a 1-1 match, but it gets awfully close, particularly if you start to include initially designated areas for apartment buildings. This entire mess was made even worse with the establishment of the Federal Housing Authority, which was intended to insure private bank loans to first-time home buyers. Even though the FHA had its own auditing system separate from the HOLC, it still had direct segregation and whites-only policies. Additionally the FHA very specifically did not insure mortgages within urban centers. This meant that both HOLC and FHA services were denied to nearly the same areas: black or integrated neighborhoods, most often in urban centers. The FHA justified its racial rules by claiming that black people ruined property values. This was actually backwards, as the limited options available to black people meant that black and integrated properties were in high demand, and thus could be sold at a much higher price. What did happen, though, was 'block-busting'. So, because the FHA (and other organizations) continuously sold the idea that black people ruined property values, as well as the base-level racism, this left white neighborhoods vulnerable to manipulation. Speculators would buy up properties in blocks on the border of black / integrated and white areas, and then rent / sell them to black people. These speculators would also hire black people to walk around white neighborhoods asking about home sales, and looking like they lived there. Then the speculators would go around warning white property owners that their housing values would tank with all the black people moving in, and make stupidly low offers, buying out white properties well below the actual value (this is where the FHA was getting its data). Then the speculators would turn around and, because there were so few other options, sell the same properties above their actual value to black people at bad rates. This drove up costs for black people who otherwise just wanted a home, and the high prices contributed to perpetuating poverty and again creating self-fulfilling slum conditions. Many cities, private lenders, and other government agencies (like Veterans Affairs) anchored their lending and development approval processes on the FHA backing of home loans, which meant that blacks were barred from even the opportunity to really leave parts of the city within which they lived. It's worth reiterating that the HOLC and FHA policies were targeted directly at owning private homes, working off of a national policy that private homes were less communist than apartments. No, I'm not kidding. The U.S. Department of Labor distributed pamphlets entitled We Own Our Own Home to schoolchildren stating that it was a "patriotic duty" to cease renting, and to buy a house. Millions of posters were printed, and hung in factories and other businesses, while newspaper ads were run throughout the country. This national housing direction propped up single-family residences, and the infrastructure to support them, while leaving pretty much everything else to languish. Then there were the racial covenants, where individual properties were made unavailable to black people by deed restrictions, and which were often implimented on neighborhood scales. Then there was the New-Deal, where the Civilian Conservation Corps abided by local segregation policies for its camps and worker housing, further entrenching local segregation. Then there was the issue of cities targeting black and low-income areas overwhelmingly with zoning variances for industry and toxic waste disposal sites, exposing those persons to much higher quantities of toxins and pollutants. Then there was public housing which eliminated mixed-income tenants, was often explicitly segregated, often resisted adding housing for black people, and, when they did add housing open to blacks, located overwhelmingly in already black and poor neighborhoods, effectively concentrating poverty and increasing segregation. Then there were Interstate Highways, which were explicitly used for 'slum clearing' in many cities (including defining slum based on racial makeup rather than socioeconomic status of the persons living there), which were massive transportation subsidies to the very same segregated low-density suburbs already built with federal loan backing while public transportation languished, and which were actually used as physical barriers between parts of the city. Frankly, the list kinda just keeps going, and so I'm not going to try and fit it all. Seriously, go read the Color of Law for more explicit details. My main point with all of these is that, when you combine the initial versions of the zoning codes, the opinions of the people who made them, and the wider reactions and policies that came after the codes proved not to 100% segregate black people from white people, it becomes clear that a major component of the zoning system was established not actually to prevent health or value issues, but rather to maintain the separation of races.
That was a lot of words...
Right, so here's the summary:
After a decade of relative progress, the federal government abandons Reconstruction
Almost immediately, communities, including previously inclusive ones, begin to force their black populations out in a renewed effort of segregation
At first this is done outside of the law, but eventually cities get the idea to literally codify segregation through ordinances
That codified segregation was struck down in the Supreme Court, so cities are forced to find a proxy method of enforcing segregation
Cities used the separating of mixed-use developments and multi-family apartment buildings to create racial segregation through the proxy of economic segregation
When this doesn't work 100%, the federal government established home mortgage support systems that directly excluded black people, preventing them from buying into single-family neighborhoods even if they could afford it
There was a lot of other shit that happened to basically show that zoning was not the unbiased system it was pretending to be
Persistence of bad policy
Even though many of the explicitly racist policies have been removed or overturned, and what progress there has been in raising the wealth of black persons has helped with some racial mixing, it's clear that the proxy methods for discrimination persist to this day, with visible segregaition outcomes. Even when we do see integration, it is often in the form of wealthy white people moving into the limited new developments allowed in previously majority black areas (AKA 'Gentrification'). Today, Atlanta is still overwhelmingly zoned for low-density, single-family residential, even if some of those zones allow up to Accessory Dwelling Units (such density, much urban). Lot sizes in much of the city are still mandated to be quite large, and height planes still overly limit the number of stories buildings can be. What apartment buildings are allowed are constrained by cumbersome parking requirements (both codified and required by private lenders), and property setbacks. Mixed uses are often restrained on individual properties, requiring a specific zoning designation to be allowed. Even the city's plan for handling future growth still relegates nearly 75% of the area to relatively low-density housing as 'conservation' areas. Metro-wide, not nearly as many homes are being built as were pre-recession. While home prices are increasing back to pre-recessionary levels, housing inventory in metro Atlanta is constrained – partially due to a lag in residential construction. Prior to the recession, it was not uncommon for residential building permits to exceed 5,000 per month (in some cases, reaching over 7,000). After May 2007, the region experienced a steep decline in residential building permits, which persisted into early 2012, when the region began seeing modest increases. Though residential permits have trended upward since 2012, they have yet to reach pre-recessional levels, hovering instead between 2,000 and 3,000 permits per month. Because of this, all counties in metro Atlanta are experiencing the a decline in housing inventory. One of the main summary points of that report was: "Home prices rising significantly – faster than wages – due in large part to dwindling supply"ARC Regional Snapshot: Affordable Housing While the metro itself has been pretty easy to build new housing within (atleast from 2000 to 2015) compared to other metros, the parts of the city and close-in suburbs tend to be the hardest within which to add new supplly (of the 10 hardest zipcodes to build, the top 3 were partially in the city, and another three were in or partly in the city). Indeed, inflation-adjusted housing prices are rising quite quickly in the Atlanta Metro, even including months during this pandemic. Prices are looking to pass pre-2008 peak in 2023ish. Only, this time, vacancy rates for both renters and homeowners have been nearly at all-time lows for the metro (Source: Census Bureau). Many of the most intense price increases happening within the core city. At the same time, affordable housing initiatives are proving to be far too few to handle the rising costs, with recent 'Inclusionary Zoning' rules, as well as the wider public housing program failing to close the need. We're talking programs considering themselves successful at a few thousand units, when the demand for affordable housing (let alone total housing) is in the hundreds of thousands. The simple reality is that the racism of our past is leading to an over-all affordability crisis today. While, as usual, the hardest hit are African Americans, this affordability crisis has far reaching impacts across the demographic spectrum, including poor whites, and, particularly, poor Latino populations as well, locking out a wide variety of people who would otherwise want to live in the kinds of dense, walkable, urban areas the City of Atlanta uniquely offers within the metro. Not only that, but the very types of low-density developments so widely codified across the city and nation do not generate enough economic activity to actually pay for the infrastructure needed to support them, propped up by piles of hidden subsidies, all resulting in cities being effectively bankrupt. (Here's another real-world example) Even some of the most 'wealthy' of towns are having to seriously reconsider their historic development patterns to close out financial gaps. In Atlanta, this leads to things like a massive backlog of maintenance issues that even recent bonds and tax increases can't fully handle. Again, policies of a racist past are hurting everyone today. Undoing those policies, and transitioning back to tried-and-true development styles would greatly help fix financial issues. Additionally, as we work to overcome challenges with climate as a whole, we need to be seriously looking at our build environments, and just how much low-density development contributes to emissions compared to higher-density parts of the metro, and even the city itself. At the same time, moving away from cars would help reduce respiratory issues for poor and minority persons who are disproportionately affected by road-pollution, and generally moving to cleaner industries while cleaning up legacy pollution sites can help undo the years of inequality through industrial exposure..
Okay, so what do we do?
We need to have a hard discussion about zoning policies: their origins, their purposes, and their effects. We need to be prepared to recognize when policies were built on hate, and where they have lead to harm, just as much as we need to be ready to recognize that not every aspect of the zoning system is bad. We need to be willing to change, and be proactive about fixing the failings of previous generations. Ideally for the net benefit of all of us. As part of this discussion, though, we are going to have to really, truly consider what 'character' of this city are valuable. What are tangible goals, what are the potential negative outcomes, and what can be done to mitigate those outcomes, ideally while actually adding to the 'character' of the city. Again, we needs to be willing to change here. Not everything wrapped under the broad umbrella of 'character' is actually worth keeping, particularly given how I could probably copy and paste some of the 'neighborhood character' arguments from the initial racial zoning codes into places like NextDoor or Facebook or even here on Reddit without anyone suspecting they are nearly 100 years old.
TLDR insanity these days on length of job descriptions when most time you just end up following direction???
This job description is for a f****** park supervisor at a reasonably large state park in Ohio, like 1.5M revenue Plans & manages all operations of Class A park &, if assigned, oversees one (1) or more Class B park(s): coordinates & monitors complex budgetary & fiscal operations (e.g., develops annual & biennial budget requests relevant to operations, monitors approved budget for assigned park(s), reviews/approves timekeeping information, approves daily expenditures, participates in audits, reviews & analyzes park revenue including complex funding sources & multiple revenue streams); establishes goals & priorities (e.g., park development & facility utilization, preventative maintenance, human resources & strategic planning, land & water based recreational amenities, park & watercraft opportunities & programs, recommends &/or develops park & watercraft rules & regulations, develops & implements park & watercraft shoreline management plan); coordinates work performed in park & supervises assigned staff (e.g., prepares schedules, assigns job tasks, conducts performance reviews, participates in administrative investigations, disciplinary &/or grievance matters, conducts coaching &/or corrective counseling, approves leave, conducts training). Manages facilities & equipment (e.g., monitors facility cleanliness, oversees fleet & equipment management, monitors infrastructure, conducts inventory (e.g., equipment, marinas, buildings, campsites), inspects or assists in inspection of park & watercraft infrastructure) & manages park & watercraft resources (e.g., schedules complex maintenance operations (e.g., watewaste water plants, lift stations, electrical issues, high volume of full-hook up campsites); monitors consumables, monitors boundaries for encroachments, purchases support services, oversees beach & lake management, over-sees pesticide application); oversees revenue generating operations including year-round overnight facilities (e.g., campgrounds, cabins, pools, concessions, marinas, boating registrations) & oversees contract compliance; coordinates with concession partners (e.g., ensures concessionaires are contractually compliant (e.g., properties, items & services), monitors all maintenance/repaireplacement items purchased/inventoried, assists with visitor complaints or concerns); coordinates capital projects at assigned location & updates stakeholders on park improvements; ensures public & employee safety (e.g., participates in concession reviews or inspections to ensure health & safety standards are in place, routinely liaises with law enforcement personnel due to in-creased volume of criminal complaints & personal injury incidents, identifies & mitigates safety hazards, participates in the development of emergency action plans, conducts safety meetings, implements & promotes safety procedures, con-firms compliance with regulatory requirements, provides visitor assistance as needed, monitors special event safety, facilitates weather emergencies, identifies need for temporary closure); operates equipment (e.g., state vehicle, watercraft, hand & power tools, personal protective equipment, tractors, mowers, all-terrain vehicles) to conduct work throughout park(s) & demonstrate equipment use & maintenance to staff. Manages customer service (e.g., addresses visitor concerns &/or issues, manages employee interaction with public, resolves park & water use conflicts, solicits & implements customer feedback & recommendations, provides information & education); manages stakeholder relationships (e.g., concessionaires &/or contractors, interacts with friends groups, partners with local communities & organizations, oversees community projects, monitors volunteer activities, interacts with government agencies, cooperates with sister agencies, participates in community outreach); coordinates with concession partners in organizing most complex park & watercraft activities & special events (e.g., firework shows, trail &/or boat races, triathlons, hikes, permitted activities); tracks visitor attendance both day use & overnight; develops new customer programs, educational programs & special events; coordinates public relations & communications duties (e.g., participates in public speaking engagements, develops informational materials, conducts public information meetings, researches & develops marketing strategies, maintains website & social media, addresses media at local level). Performs administrative duties (e.g., reviews reports, develops & solicits competitive bids, applies for grants & tracks grant spending, selects vendors, participates in recruitment & selection of employees, conducts staff meetings & attends department meetings, participates in in-service training seminars &/or conferences, represents chief at meetings, coordinates park & watercraft activities with other districts & /or divisions & offices; serves on agency committees). TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT REQUIRED TO REMAIN IN THE CLASSIFICATION AFTER EMPLOYMENT: Positions operating watercraft must complete boat operator education course per Ohio Revised Code 1547.05. UNUSUAL WORKING CONDITIONS: May be called 24 hours per day, 7 days per week; may work evenings, weekends &/or holidays; may be exposed to chemical spray, dirt, dust fumes & noise, unpleasant odors, human & animal waste; may be exposed to dangerous machinery; may work in or near water; works outside to include walking long & short distances, climbing & navigating rough terrain, steep slopes & embankments & exposure to outdoor elements (e.g., inclement weather, animals, insects, poison ivy); may be exposed to unsafe conditions. QualificationsCompletion of graduate core program in natural resources management, parks & recreation management, facility management, hospitality management, business or public administration; 12 mos. supervisory exp.; valid driver’s license. -Or completion of undergraduate core program in natural resources management, parks & recreation management, facility management, hospitality management, business or public administration; 12 mos. exp. in natural resources management, parks & recreation management, facility management, hospitality management, business or public administration; 12 mos. supervisory exp.; valid driver’s license. -Or 36 mos. trg. or exp. in natural resources management, parks & watercraft management, facility management, hospitality management, business or public administration; 12 mos. supervisory exp.; valid driver’s license. -Or 12 mos. exp. as Park & Watercraft Manager 1, 22516; valid driver’s license. -Or equivalent of Minimum Class Qualifications for Employment noted above. Knowledge of business development & administration; management science or public administration; project management; recreation management; facility management; hospitality management; event management; budgeting; supervision; employee training & development; public relations; interviewing; computer software & hardware (e.g., ERP systems); applicable agency, state &/or federal laws, policies, procedures & standards; skilled & semi-skilled trade procedures (e.g., watewastewater management, carpentry, plumbing, heating, electrical); safety practices & procedures (e.g., employee safety, equipment operations). Skill in communicating with park visitors; conflict resolution; equipment maintenance & operation as assigned (e.g., facilities management (maintenance & repair of infrastructure); related skilled & semi-skilled trades (e.g., lock administration, water quality & management); use of office equipment (e.g., telephone, photocopier, fax machine, cash register, calculator, personal computer). Ability to plan, assign, supervise & evaluate the work of staff &/or contractors; plan & coordinate special events; apply laws, policy, procedures & standards pertaining to agency operations; define problems, collect data, establish facts & draw valid conclusions to make operational decisions; maintain accurate records; prepare & deliver speeches before general public; respond to questions regarding outdoor recreation; handle routine &/or sensitive inquiries from general public; establish & maintain working relationships; demonstrate professionalism & exceptional customer service; engage in physical activities (e.g., walking, climbing, navigating uneven or rough terrain). (*) Developed after employment. Competencies: Organizing, Planning & Prioritizing Work; Monitor Processes; Making Decisions & Problem Solving. The State of Ohio is diverse, inclusive, and Equal Opportunity Employer. Under the Americans with Disability Act as Amended (ADAAA), if reasonable accommodation is required, please contact the Office of Human Resources at 614-265-6981 Effective July 1, 2015 applicants must apply online for positions at all state agencies except the Department of Developmental Disabilities (DODD). Apply online at careers.ohio.gov The final candidate selected for the position will be required to undergo a criminal background check. Criminal convictions do not necessarily preclude an applicant from consideration for a position. An individual assessment of an applicant's prior criminal convictions will be made before excluding an applicant from consideration. STATUS OF POSTED POSITIONS: Applicants can view the status of this position by logging into their user profile on the Ohio Hiring Management System [OHMS] Home page at the following link careers.ohio.gov, and selecting "My Profile". NOTES: Selection devices, proficiency testing and/or assessments may be used to determine if an applicant meets and is proficient in the minimum qualifications for this position. Applicants may attach the following document types: Microsoft Word (.doc and .docx) PDF (.pdf), * Plain Text (.txt) Rich Text (.rtf) Please do not upload attachments that have an anomaly or are password protected. VERIFIFABLE INFORMATION: All information pertaining to education, training and/or experience must be verifiable on your State of Ohio Civil Service Employment Application and/or attached resume, transcript or licensure(s) for the information to be considered
Rant on why "why don't they use nukes in Mass Effect" is stupid, and why judging weapons by total energy is stupider
This post was originally just for Mass Effect, but the information within is valuable for pretty much any sci-fi that uses omnidirectional energy burst weapons in space warfare. Basically I keep seeing something along the lines of this: **"Dreadnoughts only shoot out double digit kilotons per second (38.72 kt every two seconds). Scaling by length, cruisers and frigates should only output single digit kilotons per second; by volume they'd have even less, single digit kilotons to triple digit tons per second. So why don't they just use nukes instead? Our standard missiles are in the 300-500 kiloton range today, and we can build ones in the double digit megaton range pretty easily. We were doing it in the 1960s. Man, everyone in the universe must be so dumb!"** ...and I'm compelled to write. There's a few things to note here. Point number one. GARDIAN point-defense turrets largely renders missiles unusable within their envelope, bar mass-spamming at point-blank range. Chris L'Etoile, who wrote for ME1 and ME2 and wrote almost all of the codex, actually weighed in on this subject specifically ten years back on the old Bioware forums, which have now been deleted (dead link). Fortunately, his comment has been preserved on various sci-fi forums. I will quote it here:
"1) Why don't the disruptor torpedos have nuclear warheads so that they can destroy or disable ships on their own?" >They probably do use nuclear warheads, but not very large ones. The idea behind a torpedo is to crank up its mass so the target's kinetic barriers can't deflect it. They don't carry a lot of payload - they're mostly mass effect core and thrusters. The latter because increasing mass makes the torpedo more difficult to accelerate, as FTL drive fields make ships easier to accelerate. >So torpedo payload space is at a premium. You use a very small tactical fusion warhead to get optimal bang for minimum buck, where "buck" is defined as volume/weight of warhead. Taking it outside the box... In terms of IP design, we want fighters and warships form a combined arms force - neither able to achieve victory without the other. If fighter-launched torps always trumped warship shields/armor, who in their right mind would build those giant warships everyone loves to look at? (Conversely, people really like space fighters because they allow individual heroism - as Star Wars capably proved.) "2) What would the the likely outcome if one force tried a "missile spam" technique with nukes? (I know nukes in space aren't all that useful but the suggested yields in ME suggest that close misses would have an effect)" A very expensive, ineffective alpha strike, followed by the ship blowing up. **Dozens or hundreds of missiles will be downed by GARDIAN at range, dozens more repulsed or absorbed by kinetic barriers**. For spam attacks, you want your projectiles to be cheap. **Figuring that 90% of them will just be fodder for the target's defenses**, you probably give them smallish warheads (kilotons of yield max).It would work, yes. But as expensive as element zero is, slow torpedoes carried by fast fighters are probably going to be a more cost-effective solution. Mind you, I haven't done any hard core number crunching on that. I haven't done the research to figure how much fusion warheads might cost. The krogan might try it. Probably no one else.
Emphasis mine. This tells us a few interesting things:
"Hundreds" of missiles are required to overload the average ship's point-defense system.
Parts of the nuke are actually blocked by kinetic barriers. Likely alpha/beta particles and fusion products, as they have mass.
"Wait," you may be asking, "that doesn't make any sense. If the barrier didn't block the primary damage mechanism, how would the ship survive?". Simple. We see multipletimes that barriers can be projected a good distance from their emitters. They're simply mass effect fields programmed to repulse things; there is nothing about the tech that necessitates it hugging the hull any more than the mass effect "bubble" that they project around themselves to travel at FTL. The Derelict Reaper is a particularly extreme example of this function in action, with several seconds passing between the Normandy entering its mass effect field envelope and touching down on the surface- indicating that barriers were projected dozens if not hundreds of kilometers from the hull, consistent with the cutscene. The exact distance of the barriers from the emitters (projecting them further means they need to cover more surface area and are thus weaker to pure kinetic impacts) would logically be adjusted on the spot for the threat and controlled by an on-site VI. This brings us to: Point number two, the most important one. There is something called the inverse square law, and it's a complete bitch for explosives. The inverse square law is a basic scientific law stating that a specified physical quantity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. When applied to explosions, this basically means that they get much weaker the further you get from the epicenter. Take the Tsar Bomba, the most powerful thermonuclear device ever detonated. It had a yield of 50 megatons, 50,000,000 tons of TNT. Let's say that you managed to detonate this thing at "knife-fight" ranges for a ME ship, that is 10 kilometers. The inverse square law is helpfully modeled with Eric Rozier's calculator on nuclear weapon effects. From this we can see that a 50 megaton blast at 10 km would have the following stats: 1,256,600,000 m^2 surface area 166.48 megajoules per m^2 Or in other words: a 50 megaton bomb detonated at 10 kilometers has the same intensity as a half-ton bomb detonated at 1 meter. It will scrub a 3.71 cm thickness of titanium armor and a much lesser thickness of anything tougher (like the specially designed ablative plates that cover every Mass Effect ship). In other words it's basically harmless to a space warship with thick armor. MIT's nuke calculator specifies that, at that distance, a 50 megaton bomb would "only" be reduced to severely damaging reinforced buildings, destroying less reinforced ones, and killing the vast majority (but not 100%) of people. Definitely devastating, and roughly what you'd expect with the above figures, but far removed from the outright vaporization of everything that occurs at the bomb's epicenter. Applying the far closer distance of 1 kilometer, at which point it may as well be touching the ship's hull in space warfare terms: 12,566,000 m^2 surface area 16.648 gigajoules per m^2 To give a real-world example of the inverse square law in action, at a mere 320 meters from the blast, a WWII-era tank was able to survive a 9 kiloton nuke. Result: damaged, but salvageable. I feel like I should emphasize just how CLOSE even 1 kilometer is in space terms. We constantly see ships in the series pulling dozens or hundreds of gees of acceleration both in and out of combat. A dinky shuttle was able to go from nearly 100,000 kilometers distant from Habitat 7 (comparing Apollo 7's image of Earth and noting Habitat 7's smaller diameter) to starting deceleration inside the atmosphere in under 14 seconds during the opening scene of Andromeda, an event that would require it pulling tens of thousands of gees of straight line acceleration. But you don't even have to go that far. At a mere 10 gees of acceleration, glacially slow by ME standards, a ship would be able to clear a kilometer within four and a half seconds. A few kilometers distant in any direction, all but the biggest nukes are useless, and it only takes slightly more for the latter. Point number three, the second most important: nukes are omnidirectional. A nuclear explosion is essentially a rapidly-expanding sphere. Thus even when detonated at point-blank range, only a fraction of its energy is actually being transferred to the target. On top of that, what energy is transferred is being transferred along the target's whole surface area, as opposed to a hypervelocity impact, which concentrates its energy on an area thousands of times smaller. The disparity in intensity is going to be ludicrous. Eric Rozier's calculator is again helpful here. At a distance of merely 1 kilometer, a fairly large megaton explosion is only dealing 333 gigajoules per square meter. That's definitely a lot, but when you compare it to a mass accelerator round you start to see why no one bothers. A frigate-scale mass accelerator round that concentrates, say, 1 kiloton of kinetic energy (4,184 gigajoules) on an area of 100 cm^2 (this is very likely larger than the surface area of a typical mass accelerator round judging by the size of that dreadnought shot the gunnery sergeant was holding) is packing 100 kilotons or 418,400 gigajoules per square meter - literally over a thousand times as much as the point-blank megaton nuke. It's like the difference between a concussion grenade (typically around 1 megajoule, can be protected against by class III-A armor at a meter and is not lethal past a few meters) and an assault rifle round (typically around 0.002 megajoules, will go through class III-A armor like it's not there). At any appreciable distance this problem becomes far worse. At 10 kilometers, that megaton explosion is now down to 3.3 GJ/m2. Keep this in mind for when any franchise has their ships threatened by proximity detonations. (I blame the common conception of sci-fi shields as video game health bars that crap out universally all over the ship if they take an arbitrary number of joules applied in any way distributed by any means, even though that's not how any real world damage mechanic works and pretty much no franchise actually has them acting like that.) Point number four, nukes in space kinda... suck. NASA has a page on this. A nuclear bomb detonated in space would entirely lose its blast wave (40-50% of the explosion's energy) in the absence of an atmosphere, as well as the bulk of its thermal radiation as there is is no longer any air for the blast wave to heat. The vacuum of space is a fantastically shitty medium for any heat-based weapon system to propagate through. All of the calculations I made previously were simply modeling an explosion's fall off over distance, they didn't account for the effects of a vacuum on a nuclear detonation at all. *"But wait, what about nuclear shaped charges, like the Casaba howitzer? I read an article about those once, and they'd focus all the energy of a nuke to power a jet of molten metal. Wouldn't that be a way better choice than a kiloton railgun?"* Point number five. Nuclear shaped charges are popular among war nerds. Substantially less so among physicists. The website Atomic Rockets has an extensively-cited article about plausible near-future weapons which includes a section about nuclear shaped charges. Several tests on their viability were done in the 1980s and subsequently analyzed. Here's are excerpts:
The difficulty is in transmitting this thermal energy to the propellant, and keeping the particle cone focused.[...]It would be reasonable to use a lower figure when calculating the amount of energy delivered to the propellant. Scott Lowther gave a 50% figure for small fission charges. An SDI nuclear weapons study, Project Prometheus, experimentally tested Casaba Howitzer weapons using plastic propellants. It achieved 10% efficiency. A Princeton University study from 1990 on third-generation nuclear weapons cited 5% instead, but for fusion devices with ten times better beam focus. Despite the reduction in cone spread, the stream of particles produced by by Casaba Howitzer dissipates much more quickly than an electro-magnetically accelerated particle beam or a laser.** It is possible to reduce the beam angle to 0.006 degrees in width, as reported by the third-generation nuclear weapons study. 0.057 degrees has been experimentally achieved by project Prometheus. The trade-off is much lower efficiency than propulsive units (5-10% vs 80-85%).** The theoretical maximal performance of a thermonuclear device is 25TJ/kg. Modern weapons are able to achieve 2.5TJ/kg, but this figure is for large weapons that have better scaling. Smaller warheads such as those tested for project Prometheus are likely to be in the kiloton range, and mass about 100kg. Better understanding of fission ignition has reduced the nuclear material requirement down to a kilogram or less.A nuclear detonation only lasts a microsecond, so we can assume that the entire energy of the unit is delivered to the target in a single pulse of duration 10-6 seconds. As the particles produced expand in a cone with an angle θ, we can use the following equation to calculate the destructive potential at various distances: Intensity = (Yield * Efficiency * 10^6) / (3.14 * (tan(θ) * Distance) ^2) Irradiance = (Yield * Efficiency) / (3.14 * (tan(θ) * Distance) ^2) Intensity is measured in watts per square meter. Irradiance is joules per square meter. Yield is how much energy the nuclear charge delivers, converted to joules. Efficiency ranges from the 0.85 of a propulsion unit to the 0.05 of a Casaba Howitzer. θ is the cone angle. Distance is between the nuclear detonation and the target, in meters. Let us calculate some examples: Small Casaba Howitzer (50kg) 0.01 radian directivity (0.057 degrees) 5kt yield, 10% efficiency: 2.09TJ Distance 1km: Irradiance = 673GJ/m^2 Distance 10km: Irradiance = 6.7GJ/m^2 Distance 100km: Irradiance = 67.2MJ/m^2 Distance 1000km: Irradiance = 672kJ/m^2 Large Casaba Howitzer (1000kg) 0.001 radian directivity (0.0057 degrees) 1Mt yield, 5% efficiency: 209TJ Distance 1km: Irradiance = 6728TJ/m^2 Distance 10km: Irradiance = 67.3GJ/m^2 Distance 100km: Irradiance = 672MJ/m^2 Distance 1000km: Irradiance = 6.7MJ/m^2
Based on the efficiency of a Casaba howitzer in converting nuclear energy to kinetic energy (5%, in very optimistic scenarios), as well as the beam's spread over distance, even a megaton-grade warhead is reduced to dozens to hundreds of gigajoules per square meter at 10 kilometers, and in the tiny megajoule range at 100 km- both of these being "knife-fight" range for space warfare. This is also going with the author's optimistic projections rather than actual results (I actually can't find some of the figures he cited in the original documents). To my knowledge, there has only been one NKEW test, that being Chamita. It had 0.007% efficiency using a small nuclear warhead. But I digress. If we go with Atomic Rockets' made-up numbers and assume you pull a miracle and manage to ignite the missile ON the enemy's shield without it getting intercepted, thus making beam spread irrelevant, you can transfer a maximum of 5% of the bomb yield as kinetic energy (~50 kilotons), at which point you basically just have a slower railgun that can only be used on contact and can only be used one time. More likely it gets intercepted before it gets anywhere close. This is the absolute best case scenario for it, by the way. Atomic Rockets made these calculations assuming scaling this weapon system up to megatons was even feasible. A Princeton physicist who analyzed the tests highly doubted it could scale past 50 kilotons or so due to blackbody x-ray emissions killing efficiency. From the same page, quoting said physicist:
SPARTA Workshop, 1986. This scaling [of efficiency] presumably holds up to about 50 kilotons but, due to blackbody x-ray emission, decreases to about 1 percent for larger yields.
Further:
"There is also a fundamental problem with both the Casaba and Prometheus concepts that becomes relevant at higher yields. Despite the alleged success in directing 5 percent of the energy of a small nuclear explosion into flying debris, a good portion of the remaining energy inevitably becomes blackbody radiation, which would quickly overtake the pellets. Even at 1 kiloton with optimistic assumptions, this poses the risk that most of the particles will be vaporized or even ionized, rendering them ineffective: The NKEW concept is thus one that may require subkiloton explosives to be feasible. If its feasibility also depends on employing shaped thermonuclear explosives to help direct the pellets or dust more efficiently, then the concept is further burdened by the difficulty of designing thermonuclear devices with yields less than 1 kiloton. Whatever the case may be, it is clear that demonstrating a rush of hypervelocity pellets from a nuclear blast, while perhaps impressive, in no way guarantees that a useful weapon will ever be derived from this concept."
The concept hasn't been extensively tested (at least that we know of), the tests that we do have don't paint a good picture, and there's no guarantee of the concept ever bearing fruit. Some are optimistic and some are skeptical. But even in the best case scenario, it's not a super weapon and is largely inferior to a mass accelerator. "But what about bomb-pumped lasers? Those aren't kinetic, so they'd entirely bypass kinetic barriers. You wouldn't need kilotons." Point number six. Bomb-pumped lasers are also discussed in the page. The author quickly dismisses them by citing research that shows their efficiency would be something like one-hundred thousandth of one percent.
The concept has many problems that prevent it from being a useful replacement for conventional lasers. You first need to expend a nuclear warhead, which is a terribly wasteful use of fissile material. Only a tiny fraction of the warhead’s X-rays, which are emitted in all directions, are intercepted by the metal tube. From those, a tiny fraction of its energy is converted into coherent X-rays. If you multiply both fractions, you find an exceedinglylow conversion ratio.Further research has revealed this to be on the order of <0.00001%. It also works for just a microsecond, each shot destroys its surroundings and its effective range is limited by relatively poor divergence of the beam. These downsides are acceptable for a system meant to take down a sudden and massive wave of ICBMs at ranges of 100 to 1000 kilometers, but not much else.
You can get a nifty long-range point-defense laser for shooting down thin-skinned ICBMs out of this. Not much else. Even completely ignoring beam divergence, which would be significant, at that point the ship's ablative armor could handle such a low-yield threat without too much trouble. On top of that, it works for just a microsecond, wastes an expensive nuclear bomb, and each shot destroys its surroundings by detonating. If you have fusion reactor-powered lasers, as the civilizations in ME do, you have no use for this. "Okay. But even if they weren't useful as the primary weapons for space warfare, they still have other uses. So why don't they use them?" Point number seven: they DO. First there's L'Etoile's quote. Disruptor torpedoes are nukes, on top of warp bombs. He specifies that they have small warheads, but "small" in the context of a fusion warhead must be taken in context. Today, we can practically get around 6 kilotons per kilogram of bomb mass out of our fusion weapons. Assuming the ME races can obtain ratios no better than this (despite their mastery of helium-3-deuterium fusion power, which should logically allow them to build fusion bombs with an order of magnitude superior yield to weight ratio to ours), even a tiny missile warhead like those mounted an AMRAAM (24 kilograms) would get you yields in the hundreds of kilotons. A 5 kg RPG-7/LAW sized warhead would get you 30 kilotons. Of course, at 2 km away a 30 kt device would have an intensity of ~5 MJ/m^2, not enough to melt a cubic meter of iron. Negligible even before you factor in mitigation. Second there is the planet description for Illium and the codex entry for the Miracle of Palaven, both of which indicate wide employment of nukes, including man-portable ones. Third, there are various stories that reference their use in Cerberus Daily News. They have lots of nukes and no compunctions about using them where they're effective (read: not in space warfare). Fourth, there are scenes in the games where their usage is implied but not explicitly stated. The example that comes to mind right now is Jack's loyalty mission. A fringe terrorist group on a shadow budget gives you an apparently man-portable bomb for no reason other than to make one of their mercenaries feel better. This bomb causes a fireball that persists for eight seconds and visibly rocks a large aircraft that was probably dozens of kilometers away (it had been accelerating in the opposite direction for nearly thirty seconds on-screen and had been doing so for an unknown but significant amount of time off-screen), putting its yield in the low megatons. They think nothing of just throwing these kinds of weapons away for no reason. But they mainly use nukes for cost-cutting reasons. Because, and this deserves some emphasis: Point number eight: THE MASS EFFECT POWERS HAVEFUCKING ANTIMATTER WARHEADS.
Gianna Parasini: He called in a Code Omega. If there is no all clear, the Executive Board votes on whether or not to destroy the facility. One antimatter warhead from the battlestations vaporizes all contaminants.
...and they're common enough that private corporations can deploy them en masse in their battle stations orbiting a single backwater planet. If a small private corporation can install and maintain orbital based antimatter warheads for the purpose of scrubbing bio-hazards, and a military thousands of years ago could blow hundreds of tons of it in secret (see below), there is clearly sufficient industrialization of antimatter that the cost/benefit of generating, transporting and suspending it is vastly superseded by its commercial availability - so much so that it can be sold to private entities as opposed to more commonly available fusion weapons. Not exactly surprising when matter-antimatter annihilation is the main source of military starship fuel. One half kilogram of antimatter reacting with one half kilogram of normal matter would produce a 43 megaton explosion, orders of magnitude above the energy efficiency of even pure fusion weapons. The main issue with using antimatter as a weapon is containment, a problem that clearly has been solved in ME to the point that antimatter is the power source for every warship. Mass-altering fields make containment easy-peasy. Of course, antimatter warheads have all the problems of nukes while also being far more expensive, so it's no wonder that no one's jumping at the chance to waste hundreds of them just for the chance to kill a shitbox frigate. "Even if they didn't use them in space warfare, wouldn't nukes still be good for planetary bombardment?" Not unless you want to just kill everything on the planet, in which case it's a wonder why you're even attacking it. To rule a rock? Most any mass accelerator of warship scale can kill anything you need killed (enemy formations, armored units, supply depots, communications nodes, orbital battle stations, ground to space batteries, etc.) and reduce the ground-side resistance to dispersed light infantry and technicals without you even needing to get within 100,000 kilometers of the planet. But they can do it if they want to. The turian bomb on Tuchanka was likely an antimatter bomb (makes sense given that the Citadel Conventions indicate that antimatter warheads existed as far back as the Krogan Rebellions), given its demonstrably impossible energy densities even for pure fusion weapons. Even H3-DT reactions "only" produce about 353 terajoules [85 kilotons] per kilogram. If it goes off, it kills every living thing in a 500 kilometer radius, which going by MIT's nuke calculator equates to a 14.5 teraton (14,500,000,000 kilotons) explosion assuming that the denizens of Tuchanka are no more durable than humans (they are). This would require hundreds of tons of antimatter. The turians built this as a precaution. In secret. 1,400 years ago. So yeah, building big bombs is not an issue for a population that considers H3-DT fusion quaint civilian-grade stuff and which has a population measured in the trillions with an effectively post-scarcity level of wealth, where middle class citizens can plausibly buy thousand-ton starships, where multi-billion ton spacecraft can be built as vanity projects by single billionaires, where planet-encircling structures are not notable, and where a single mining operation on a backwater world can shift hundreds of millions of tons of material per day. Building huge bombs wouldn't be an issue even without antimatter or DT-H3 fusion with this level of industry. It wouldn't be an issue with OUR tech base, in fact. Physicist Edward Teller noted the possibility of building 10-gigaton bombs decades ago just by scaling up regular nukes. There's no reason it can't be done. The ME powers (and us, for that matter) just don't do it because why the fuck would they do that? If you attached thrusters to it you'd essentially just get a comically over-sized and slow one-shot starship that is useless at hitting anything more mobile than a space station or planet, given the ease with which any warship could accelerate away (their thrust/weight ratios are going to be higher by definition). And if you've obtained the space superiority necessary to casually deorbit thousands of tons of fusion material/antimatter into the enemy's static position out of spite without retaliation, you're in a position where you can accomplish more damage on the cheap just by throwing an asteroid the size of a small moon at the object of your oddly specific hatred. Kenson and Balak demonstrated this using jury-rigged civilian equipment. Let's talk about those asteroids for a minute, on the subject of strategic weaponry. Dialogue indicates that X57 is 22km long, as the lead engineer tells you: "X57 is 22 kilometers long. Twice the size of the asteroid that wiped out the Earth's dinosaurs." X57 appears to be an ellipsoid shape, slightly more than half as wide & tall as it is long, hence: V = (4/3)*pi*a*b*cV = (4/3)*pi*11000*6000*6000V = 1.66*10^12 m^3 X57 is a metallic asteroid, and was put into Terra Nova's orbit to be mined, as such it is likely rather dense. Pulling from this paper, it appears that metallic asteroids - while composed of materials with density in the ranges of 7000kg/m^3, have overall densities of 4000kg/m^3. Therefore, X57 likely masses in excess of 6.64e+15 kg, or 6.64 Trillion tons X57 was put into orbit around Terra Nova before being hijacked by batarian terrorists who planned to crash the asteroid into the planet. During the introductory cutscene, the Normandy VI states that at the current rate of acceleration, the asteroid will hit in 4 hours. Comparing the size of Terra Nova against Earth in Google Earth, X57 appears to be ~20,000 km away from the planet. We arrive shortly after the asteroid has been taken. Taking 4 hours to cross 20,000km would suggest a constant acceleration of 0.1929m/s^2. With the asteroid massing in excess of 6.64 Trillion tons, that would result in the effective force the 3 engines applying being 1.28086E+15 Newtons. This results in the three engines producing a total of 6.12 teratons of energy over their 4 hour burn, with a power of 1.7 exawatts (conservatively, as text entries found in the missions suggest it's actually 300,000 km from Terra Nova). This is consistent with the lead engineer describing the results of the asteroid crashing into the Earth-like planet of Terra Nova, which seem consistent with a planetary extinction event in the high teraton range:
X-57 is twice the size of the asteroid that wiped out the Earth's dinosaurs. It would be like millions of fusion bombs striking at once. With the heat of the blast, a thousand kilometers away, clothes would ignite. There'd be global wildfires. Air shock will flatten everything for hundreds of kilometers. Terra Nova will die, Shepard- not just our colony, the planet. There'll be a climate shift, mass extinctions, the ecosystem won't recover for thousands of years. Millions maybe.
tl;dr
Most missiles are intercepted by point-defense.
Even if they were not intercepted by point-defense, nukes are terrible weapons for space warfare.
Mass Effect warship barriers and accelerations compound the issues with using omni-directional energy burst weapons against them.
An energy burst weapon with thousands of times the yield of a mass accelerator round would be lucky to get even a thousandth of its intensity, therefore the mass accelerator round is actually much better for destroying durable things.
Nuclear shaped charges are slightly less terrible weapons for space warfare, but beam dispersion and inefficiencies render them basically just an (extremely) poor man's mass accelerator, except they only have one shot and can only be used at point-blank range.
Bomb-pumped lasers are specialized weapons with extremely low efficiencies that would be useless for anything other than a very specific type of point-defense.
The Mass Effect races do use nukes, just not usually in space warfare (because they're terrible).
The Mass Effect races have antimatter warheads which do everything objectively better than nukes.
They don't use nucleaantimatter missiles against each other for very specific reasons; they're still fully capable of mass-producing them cheaply for use against civilizations that DON'T have their level of point-defense and speed (i.e., any civilization in sci-fi where small numbers of slow-moving missiles are presented as relevant in space warfare).
Building an oversized bomb that releases gigatons on detonation can be done even by Earth circa the 1990s. It's not a big feat for any civilization that has discovered fusion weapons. The turians built a big bomb that released teratons on detonation. In ME's own context that wasn't a big feat either. In the ME3 trailers, and on the approach to Menae in ME3, we even see multiple large fireballs taking up non-negligible percentages of planetary surfaces (complete with muffled explosion sound effects), indicating that not only do they have the ability to build these weapons easily, they're already keeping stockpiles of them.
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